This paper examines the concept of critical marketing, tracing its historical development, key models, and the evolution of scholarly perspectives. A specific focus is placed on feminist advertising, or ‘femvertising,’ to understand its relationship with critical marketing and its potential as a tool for gender equality and female empowerment. By analyzing past literature and current practices, the paper evaluates the merits of femvertising and its role in the broader feminist movement.
The discussion aims to determine whether femvertising represents a genuine shift towards critical marketing principles or remains a superficial trend capitalizing on feminist ideals. Furthermore, the paper explores the future trajectory of critical marketing and femvertising, offering insights into their potential to drive meaningful societal change.
The F-Word Is Back
(Pauline Maclaran, 2018)
Advertising as a discipline and industry appears to have moved with the times, from being deeply stereotypical towards women to joining the fight for gender equality and female empowerment (Castillo, 2014). Or maybe not (Casais, 2021).
This paper seeks to explore critical marketing, its history, models that shape it, past literature and studies on the subject and attempt to establish what attempts to be critical in marketing currently look like and what they might look like in the future. In doing so, the author will also investigate feminist advertising or ‘femvertising’, how it plays into the concept of marketing being critical and what its evolution has looked like so far. The paper will discuss the merits of femvertising, looking to see if it is worth the current buzz around it and if it the next best thing for the feminist movement and critical marketing.
Marketing as a concept has evolved greatly over time from simply being the ‘processes involved in selling and buying’ (Mark Tadajewski, 2018), to becoming the concept by which companies and organizations seek to satisfy consumer needs in such a way that is profitable to said company or organization (Mark Tadajewski, 2008). Although it has been established that marketing has a lot to contribute to society, albeit a lot of which is as a result of self-justification and self-legitimization (Mark Tadajewski, 2018), it is also necessary for the advancement of the field that an inner reflection is had, to establish whether marketing is developing as it should (Mark Tadajewski, 2008).
Marketing today is viewed as responsible for the rise of hedonism among consumers with its awakening of latent wants among consumers and feeding into it, thus creating this environment for instant gratification (O'Shaughnessy, 2002). Advertising is usually singled out as praising acquisition and celebrating consumption at the expense of other values. It is even referred to as the activity that destroys values the most in Western civilization (Schudson, 1984) as well as criticised for its promotion of values and behaviours that are not in agreement with the idea of man as a self-controlled intellectual creature (Tadajewski, 2010a). However, an argument has been made to suggest that consumer marketing did not invent hedonism and that societies have been materialistic prior to it, even denoting that religious leaders have used marketing concepts such as ‘shop till you drop’ as ways of promoting their gospel (Moore, 1994). Perhaps suggesting that marketing is not doing anything that other disciplines aren’t also partaking in.
Nevertheless, it would be necessary to note still that due to the nature of marketing having a ‘preoccupation with results’ (Moorman, 1987), there is a higher possibility of technique being unethical and amoral as there is less of a focus on what is right (Mark Tadajewski, 2008). In agreement to this, Desmond highlights that marketing managers rarely have to face the consequences of their actions directly (Desmond, 1995) and not personally or individually witnessing the child labour that produces our outfits or the chemical waste that is dumped into the river means we can pretend it doesn’t happen (Mark Tadajewski, 2008). It has also been suggested that marketing plays a role in maintaining an uneven distribution of income in society (Tadajewski, 2010a). It is with these in mind that critical marketing becomes essential.
Marketing has actually been critical for some time in the sense of the ‘Frankfurt School version of ‘unmasking critique’’ (Mark Tadajewski, 2008) and the rise of critical marketing can be traced back to the work of Hansen as a response to the condemnation of advertising and marketing in the late 1960s (Hansen, 1981). What exactly constitutes critical marketing is still up for debate as many scholars have differing views on what it is. However, one thing that has been agreed is that it is ‘not logical empiricist or positivistic in nature’ meaning that it does not attempt to build for itself, a case for the objectivity of its analysis (Tadajewski, 2010b). Critical marketing has been put forth by Tadajewski, Higgins, Denegri-Knott and Varman as a concept that seeks to examine marketing practices and its theories from a critical aspect while exploring its dynamics with consumers and the society (Mark Tadajewski, 2018). No one would assume that changing the economic system of the world would be easy (Nason, 2008) but it is still necessary to start somewhere (Tadajewski, 2010b). A way to do this, scholars have suggested, would be for critical scholars to work with NGOs, non-profit and activist groups (Burton, 2009; Tadajewski, 2010a; Voronov, 2008) as well as conventional for-profit organizations (Applbaum, 2009; Knights, 2009), not to necessarily radicalize the society’s thinking towards consumerism and marketing but to begin to reduce its ‘harmful social effects’ (Voronov, 2008).
However, on the other end it is necessary to note that research into critical marketing is meant to be ‘non-performative’ and not carried out for the sole purpose of optimising profit for organisations (Mark Tadajewski, 2008) rather, it should be carried out to problematize and challenge capitalist values and ‘the individualistic conception of consumer behaviour’ (Turkdogan, 2018). In-fact, Firat argues that beyond being critical, we need to become radical and shed the ‘chains of modernism’ to enable us to begin to visualize what lays ahead (Firat, 2009). Some scholars posit that this new form of critical marketing is moving past the traditional stance and more towards being experimental (Tadajewski, 2010b) with less assumptions that the effects of marketing is always detrimental or that marketers are always quiet towards societal issues (Drumwright, 2004) and more interest in learning about those marketing decisions (Gibson, 2008) and exploring the ‘multiple rationalities’ that influence those decisions (Hotho, 2007). The idea here is that we register where practitioners' self-understanding conforms to and does not conform to stereotypical images found in certain strands of Critical literature, thereby pluralizing our understanding of what constitutes marketing actions (Tadajewski, 2010a). Critical marketing is of course too broad a concept to be put in a neat box (Tadajewski, 2010a) but there are certainly recurring themes and aspect one of which is feminism in advertising.
Friedan has previously, in the 1960s, criticised marketers as being complicit in the patriarchal structures that were in place to subdue and manipulate women (Friedan, 1963). Maclaran and Kravets identified that despite this, marketing scholars did not begin to draw on feminist perspectives that serve to uncover gendered assumptions in marketing until the 1990s (Maclaran, 2018). Specifically, these feminist perspectives exposed the masculinist assumptions of marketing (Bristor, 1993) and consumer research (Joy, 1994) as well as unravelled advertisement content to uncover their hidden prejudices (Stern, 1992). This has led to an increase in feminist voices in critical marketing research (Maclaran, 2018) although history would show that there have always been women’s voices in marketing and advertising, albeit hidden and undocumented (Tadajewski, 2013).
During the first wave of feminism, marketing was a tool and the industry an ally to the movement, providing suffragettes with avenues to publicize their efforts towards women’s empowerment (Scott, 2005). It was not until the second wave that marketers started being more involved in the oppression of women, using their marketing activities to push through stereotyped ideas of women’s roles in society as domesticity as well as promote unequal power balances and unrealistic beauty standards (Pauline Maclaran, 2018). During this wave is where Friedan’s book, Feminine Mystique critiqued the marketing industry for its role in the oppression of women (Friedan, 1963), as well as Germaine’s the Female Eunuch in 1970 (Greer, 1970). Adverts during this time were also criticized for their role in presenting men as naturally ‘in charge’ and dominating while women were also frail, frivolous, and submissive (Goffman, 1979). During this wave, there were limited feminist critiques in research on consumer behaviour or gender advertising (Maclaran, 2018) with most activities focused on marketing for different segments of women brought on by the feminist movement e.g. professional career women and homely housewives (Courtney, 1983) rather than exploring or critiquing reasons for the gender differences (Catterall, 2001). Dr. Lilia Giugni termed this phenomenon in the second wave, ‘negotiated appropriation’ during her talk at the Frontiers of Social Innovation Research Conference 2020. A concept which saw professional marketers directly female perspectives to appeal to women and present as forward thinking, something which Dr. Giugni believes was possible as a result of the feminization of the marketing and advertising industry and it being one of the few career options available to women at the time (Dr. Guigni, 2020).
Moving on to the 1990s, the third wave of feminism emerged in response to the second wave's flaws, particularly in terms of intersectionality and diversity (Maclaran, 2018). Third-wave feminists rejected the homogeneous view of womanhood that characterised earlier waves and advocated for empowerment, diversity, and inclusivity (Maclaran, 2012). Feminism then became a popular marketing tool, with businesses using it to sell their products, resulting in the commodification of feminist ideals (Catterall, 2005). This incorporation of feminism into marketing campaigns can be interpreted as a form of co-optation, appropriation, and superficiality (Maclaran, 2018). Looking at critical marketing, it is necessary to observe these ideals and their relevance to modern marketing since brands must exhibit authenticity, social responsibility, and inclusivity to connect with today's diverse consumers.
The traditional ad campaigns portray the stereotypes more often, such as the idea of the perfect parent, which describes that women are in charge of the domestic chores and have no role outside the boundaries of their house (Sharma and Das., 2019). Also, the perception of sexualised women emphasises that women are always anticipated whether at home or in public. Consumers demand a different and more realistic approach to advertisements. According to the statistics, these stereotypes no more satisfy people for the rising liberalism (Windels, et al., 2020). In addition, stereotypes like these indicates the approach of advertisers telling and forcing the audience to be what they show, which can be a destructive picture (Sterbenk, et al., 2022).
The stereotypical ads represent women cleaning up, cooking, caring, and dressing while the men are engaged in external affairs. To prevent the spreading of messages such as fathers handling external matters and women being the caretakers, the advertising department should portray the reality of modern families and women’s realities (Sterbenk, et al., 2022). For example, there are women who are the only caretakers of the home and family, the ads should denote family dynamics’ realities such as that as well as ones where the mother is a paid employee, spectral families, nurturing fathers, and homes as single parents (Lima and Casais., 2021). Besides, statistics denote that the number of women has risen in the workplace in comparison to 10 years back. Also, many mothers are those who balance their work and home effectively. Among them, most mothers are those with the responsibility of toddlers as well. Approximately a million single-parent households made up over 14% of the economy in the year 2020 (Prothero and Tadajewski., 2021).
Children have the legal right to learn, play, and run according to their desires (Sobande., 2019). To the detriment of this, advertisements teach children that girls should engage in indoor and resting games while boys can play actively outdoors. Young girls are shown playing with home appliances and dolls, adding pink colour to them, whereas boys can play with cars. In this case, the toys and indoor or outdoor play conditions represent the gender disparity among children. Such practices may modify the method of how girls and boys may learn and grow with adequate skills (Varghese and Kumar., 2022). However, in reality, things turn out to be different, as statistics denote girls' participation in sports as about 68%. Furthermore, among children aged between 5 and 14, more girls’ participation is observed in physical play than boys. The difference is that toy marketing is also prominent as girls’ toys emphasise the factors that help develop social and verbal skills, benefitting them in adolescence. At the same time, boys’ toys emphasise special and motor skills (Champlin, et al., 2019).
The fact cannot be denied that women have the right to privacy, to that effect, advertisements should not put them in positions to be narrated, stared at, or observed by men. The idea of observed women leads a woman to be specified for the male gaze or hand over her narrating power to a male (Reshetnikova, 2022). Also, it makes her an object to be commented on or watched by the males. This stereotype often considers the sexualised women stereotype, with the women acting to seduce the male audience and the camera working as an observer. Such advertisements motivate and encourage the male audience to consider women no more than an object. However, representing women in the advertisements with authority and agency portray the importance of women being respected, trusted, and treated the same as men (Michaelidou et al., 2022). Thus, in advertisements, more than 60% of voiceovers are preferred by males conveying that the male voice is significant, respected, and trustworthy and women do not stand a chance there. Besides, it indicates limiting the independence of women, which falls into the category of violence against women (Mamuric., 2019).
Evolution in different sectors has brought significant changes to the advertising approaches and marketing field (Sharma and Bumb, 2022). Thus, researchers advocate that the progress made by women in society and careers has accessed them to reflect their desires through marketing (Ronda and Azanza., 2021). Even though mass media displays women stereotypically, there is no shortage of positive messages regarding females. Modern women possess more political and economic power than women in past eras. Furthermore, femvertising resonate with this demographic change through a different approach to delivering their messages. This has resulted in a shift from presenting objectified or domestic women to representing women as liberal, confident, independent, and empowered in advertisements (Aruna and Gunasundari., 2021).
During recent years, there have been some innovative advertisement campaigns that have reflected the realities of modern women and modern people in general.
Havells Appliances: coffee maker – Respect for Women ad
Launch of an eye-catching campaign by the Havells considers six TVCs portraying the theme of respecting women (Reshetnikova, 2022). Thus, a message regarding women that females are not the only ones responsible for the kitchen and household work as they are skilful enough to work as men can is conveyed with every advertisement. Also, it emphasises that no task is gender specific; males and females can share the domestic chores equally, and females can work at the offices as well (Mamuric., 2019). Furthermore, its advertisements denote the pre-married life matters where men prefer partners who could make them a cup of coffee. Havells slams this perspective by conveying that a woman is not a commodity. Instead of specifying women for house chores, appliances can be made available to ease (Michaelidou et al., 2022).
Titan Raga: Women of Today
This advertisement targets women in urban areas who are aware of their self-worth and confident enough to live independently (Champlin, et al., 2019). Thus, the “women of today” message is delivered by positioning women as decision-makers with a goal-oriented and broad mindset. Moreover, the advertisement reflects the changes in women and their roles over time (Ronda and Azanza., 2021). Minimising the need for a man to earn and feed her, this advertisement emphasises that women can work and feed themselves by living independently. Besides, a woman is capable of making her own decision. Portraying the role of self-assured women, the actress playing the lead role in this advertisement has inspired women who want to establish an independent lifestyle (Soler., 2019).
Lloyd – unisex washing machine
Women and washing have been presented together more often (Vadakkepatt, et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the Lloyd- unisex washing machine advertisement is rooted in a new concept bringing the matter into a discussion of why women need to wash the clothes and not the men by delivering a message of sharing the house chores equally between the men and women (Soler., 2019). Thus, the advertisement focuses on the salesman, who presents a washing machine to a male consumer. The idea of a unisex washing machine presented to the audience overcomes the understanding of washing tasks observed in the past (Sharma and Bumb, 2022).
Femvertising is all across the media; highlighting the talents of women by countering stereotypical perspectives means an effective advertising approach (Ronda and Azanza., 2021). However, a systematic attempt has yet to be made that could establish a reason for how it is being rapidly accepted socially (Aruna and Gunasundari., 2021). Nevertheless, the foremost causes leading to femvertising include the activism developing around women’s better representation in advertising, the rising awareness about the stereotypes related to gender, conscious capitalism, and brand activism. Besides, commodity criticism with corporate criticism and increment in the scrutiny on the representation of gender roles by the authoritative bodies in advertising also adds to it (Reshetnikova, 2022).
As the three waves of feminism were discussed earlier, looking at post-feminism and feminism’s third wave it can be debated that femvertising is the direct response or direct backlash regarding the commodity feminism dominating the female-centric advertisement approach from the 2000s and the early 1970s (Champlin, et al., 2019). However, Crouse Dick had already predicted back in 2002 that there would be a shift to advertising from post-feminist marketing as advertisement possesses the potential to promote women's empowerment (Windels, et al., 2020). He also recommended that by considering advertising, women would recognise their authentic selves rather than letting the products decide what makes a good woman. Similarly, advertising is considered the social role theory’s confirmation introduced by Diekman and Eagly, emphasising the representation of women according to the evolution of society and gender stereotypes (Sobande., 2019).
Embarking upon the relationship between advertising and critical marketing, along with how both correlates, is this section's essence (Windels, et al., 2020). Thus, the scholarly analysis considers critical marketing as a standard object. Numerous researchers have introduced their perspectives on critical theory within the marketing field. Saren and Hastings recommended that the tradition set provided by Arnold and Fisher should be followed by critical marketers. Also, critical marketers are suggested to follow various approaches to inquire about the outcomes and processes related to marketing (Prothero and Tadajewski., 2021). In addition, the critical theory is utilised to reconsider the results of several marketing activities extending from the customer loyalty policy and advertising to marketing’s role in the most complex social procedures. The complex social procedures may include social rejection and commodity fetishism. However, the critical theory in marketing is considered an extremely diverse research body according to the perception of most researchers because the re-evaluation of outcomes and processes related to marketing requires various models (Sharma and Das., 2019).
Undoubtedly, femvertising has resulted in positive and better outcomes for companies. These results urge the need to discontinue the advertising content based on the sexist approach (Lima and Casais., 2021). Besides, not identifying the method of the market’s concentration in working through the social movements to gain benefits is prejudiced as it leads to suspicious remarks regarding an advertisement proposal’s sincere intentions. However, for Menéndez, gaining a woman’s trust and approval for a stance in front of society that is politically correct can be considered gender-washing (Sobande., 2019). Also, as it struggles to ensure socially responsible behaviour by taking a stand against gender stereotypes, sexist content, and emancipatory speech, it encourages women and girl empowerment, honest appreciation, and gender equality. Nonetheless, advertising-related challenges are found in a committed demonstration above the commercial interests to the social change. Thus, SheKnows Media produced its background by describing it as an advertisement that utilises messages, content, and talent based on pro-female assisting with girls' and women's empowerment (Champlin, et al., 2019).
According to several advertising critics, it is brought up that this movement does not align with the promotion of feminism. Instead, it raises the advertising agencies’ logic, placing suitable elements related to feminism according to contemporary social tensions (Varghese and Kumar., 2022). Thus, at this point, it is difficult to consider the advertisement genuine. Nonetheless, the brands disapprove of it as a generous social movement too. According to Zeisler, such a strategy portrays the risk that it may provoke the need to observe market feminism where the extreme interest of young females to embrace the modified label might result in feminism’s depoliticising. However, the brands’ authenticity is the focus of the positions that support the idea of advertising (Sobande., 2019). The brand follows the consumer’s behaviour as it depicts the interest in the brands’ intentions, motives, and questions regarding the products. Besides, in advertising, moral authenticity is informing why women have a specific look or role in the advertisement. Nonetheless, these new strategies, like advertising, seek to replace advertisements' prior and historical approaches by dismissing the stereotypes often formed by the labour’s sexual division, such as the female beauty standard, hyper-sexualisation, and objectification. This should be done by representing messages close to women's realities (Ronda and Azanza., 2021).
Women’s empowerment is utilised for various cultural and emotional purposes resulting in advertising agencies embracing the concept of advertising in their business strategies (Mamuric., 2019). According to Martínez, the role of the empowerment process should be to make the women learn about assertiveness and self-esteem as it can benefit them as well as bolster personal autonomy. However, such practices should be implemented in their interaction context only rather than in the individual aspects, including their social subtleties (Aruna and Gunasundari., 2021). Therefore, the significance of the spaces and roles, in which the 21st century’s women population lives, are considered for the advertising to enhance its status quo, and readdress its messages and content. All of these factors promote women's empowerment. Precisely, advertising develops such strategies that dismiss the sexist and lewd models that claim to promote women's empowerment (Soler., 2019).
Also, considering the demands of women for the communication of reality through various channels, brands sponsor the advertising strategy that brings the stereotypical behaviour to a halt (Varghese and Kumar., 2022). Moreover, the focus on the traditional roles and physical beauty standards perceived for decades has been replaced by modified models of professional, independent, active, leadership, and empowered women. Among the initial brands implementing the advertising strategy were the ones that sold female market-oriented products (Mamuric., 2019). Besides, they represented the reality of women gambling on diversity, despite the different skin tones, races, and physical complexions. Hence, companies with male market-oriented products have jumped on the bandwagon of advertising, realising that preserving women can positively impact the growth of on-brand loyalty, purchase intention, and the company itself. This has resulted in more advertising communities aligning with this advertising approach (Champlin, et al., 2019).
Among society's dominant ideologies, advertisement ranks among those at the top (Reshetnikova, 2022). Advertisement agencies have realised this fact by witnessing massive growth in the companies implementing the advertising approach. Thus, no one wants to spare a chance to represent a woman respectfully. Media treating women positively impacts society to respect women too (Windels, et al., 2020). Even though this significant change is not witnessed worldwide, it is under process. Moreover, this strategy is more likely to pave the way for women in the future to work and live according to their desires. However, for successful results, advertisement agencies should produce more advertising content to boost the spirit of those who lack the confidence to be addressed in public. This would empower women and result in more sales, as half of the consuming population is female. Furthermore, replacing the traditional model of women only woking at home, with women at paid workplaces would contribute significantly to the global economy (Prothero and Tadajewski., 2021).
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- Samiat Olayide (Autor), 2024, The Role of Femvertising in Critical Marketing. Evolution, Impact, and Future Directions, Múnich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1544050
