This study examines the use of mother tongues in teaching English as a foreign language at the University of Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The study aims to identify students' preferred mother tongues and evaluate the effectiveness of translanguaging in English language instruction for non-native speakers. Data was collected through questionnaires and interviews with 250 students, resulting in test, qualitative, and quantitative data. The findings suggest that incorporating students' mother tongues, local languages, or French alongside English can benefit multilingual Congolese learners who struggle with English as an academic subject. The main challenge identified is that students come from diverse linguistic backgrounds, making English learning difficult for the majority of them as they do not speak the same mother tongue.
Keywords: teaching methods, multiple mother tongues, translanguaging, perfect mother tongue, local language and foreign language.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
CHAPTER ONE: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS
CHAPTER FOUR: RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION
RECOMMENDATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
SAMPLES
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to:
- My parents Wakenge Vumilia and Malekani Kapele.
- My wife Louange Eda.
- My children Levidi and Claudia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank the Almighty God for His love and mercy, granting me physical, moral and spiritual strength, protection and abilities to carry out this dissertation.
I express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Nsimambote Zola, who kindly agreed to supervise this dissertation.
I would like to thank my co-supervisor, Professor Buhendwa Munganga, for his contribution to this dissertation.
I would like to thank a member of my reading committee Professor Busaki, for guiding and assisting me with his valuable insight in this dissertation.
I am grateful to Professor Majambo Kalonda for his initial supervision.
I also thank Mr. Kalala for accepting to teach the first year students of media in using a multilingual approach or translanguaging method on my behalf.
I thank my siblings: Vianney Malekani, Olga, David, Lydie.
I thank those in the family of Christ for their continual moral and spiritual support, especially Professor Mundeke and his wife.
I want to thank all the lecturing staff of the University of Kinshasa and particularly the Association of scientific staff of the University of Kinshasa (ACS) for their last-minute financial support.
I cannot forget the first-year students of ‘LMD’ in the Department of Media and Information, Faculty of Arts, who willingly agreed to fill out the questionnaires and be involved in the interview for data collection.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the authorities of the language observatory for providing me with the opportunity to work there, which helps me fund partially my own research and for their scientific contribution.
This dissertation would also not have been completed without the efforts of the following people to whom I would like to express my deepest gratefulness: Etienne Ngwaba, Martin Dunia, Gaby kyomba and his wife, Degbalase Ngbendu Celestin, Atuba Pascal, René Mayamba and Matondo who are all my support in Statistics involved in this dissertation.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ACALAN : African academy of languages
A F D L : Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo.
A L : Applied Linguistics
C A : Contrastive Analysis
CAR : Central African Republic.
CELTA : Centre de Linguistique Théorique et Appliqué.
C L I L : Content and language integrated learning
CTL : Communicative Teaching Language
DRC : Democratic Republic of Congo
E A : Error Analysis
EAL : English as additional language.
EFL : English as a foreign language
EIC : Etat Independent du Congo.
GCSE : General certificate of secondary Education
GTM : Grammar Translation Method
IBM : International Business Machines
IL : Interlanguage
L1 : First Language
L2 : Second Language
LMD : Licence Master Doctorat
MPR : Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution MT : Mother Tongue
NL : Native Language
SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences
TL : Target language
TPR : Total Physical Response
U N C : Université Nationale du Congo
UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: number of speakers in different geographical areas
Table 2: Geographical areas where these national languages are used
Table 3: Multi data used in the dissertation
Table N°4 Gender of the participants triangulated
Table N°5 Age of the participants triangulated
Table N°6.Languages expressed in a court of the participants triangulated
Table N°7: Languages used in a quarrel of the participants
Table N°8 Languages of smooth expression of the participants triangulated
Table N°9 Languages used in trouble of the participants triangulated
Table N°10 Languages of intimacy of the participants triangulated
Table N°11 Languages of mass media of the participants triangulated
Table N°12 Languages confided in writing of the participants triangulated
Table N°13 Languages confided in reading of the participants triangulated
Table N°14: Languages of easy understanding of the participants triangulated
Table N°15.Languages of preference to follow classes of the participants triangulated
Table N°16 Languages of preference to follow sermon in the church of the participants triangulated
Table N°17 Languages of preference to follow English classes of the participants triangulate
Table N°18 Views of the participants triangulated
Table N°18: Perfect mother tongues establishment (Survey)
Table N°19. Paired samples test
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Gender
Figure 2: Age
Figure 3: Languages expressed in a court
Figure 4: languages used in a quarrel
Figure 5: languages of smooth expression
Figure 6. languages used in trouble
Figure 7: languages of intimacy expression
Figure 8: languages of mass media
Figure 9: languages of confided in writing
Figure 10: languages of confided in reading
Figure 11: languages of easy understanding
Figure 12: languages preferred to follow classes
Figure:13: languages preferred to follow sermons in church
Figure 14: languages preferred to follow English classes
INTRODUCTION
01 The research problem
The benefits of integrating mother tongues in teaching a foreign language are sufficiently documented in the literature of multilingualism and education according to Hinai (2011), Mahmutoglu and Kicir (2013) and Richards (2016). The latter states that integrating mother tongues in teaching English as a foreign language helps learners understand and remember new words.
Taking into account the above fact concerning the positive impact of mother tongues in the teaching of English as a foreign language, the researcher is interested in conducting a study to demonstrate this positive impact in a classroom.
02. Interest of the topic
This dissertation is an innovative study. It deals with a multilingual approach which can help Congolese students and teachers in the teaching and learning of English as a foreign language. Many scholars have demonstrated benefits of multilingual approach helping in explaining the meaning of abstract words, highlighting the main differentes in grammar and pronunciation between L1 and L2.
03. Research objectives
This dissertation aims at demonstrating the positive impact of mother tongue in the teaching of English as a foreign language.
It targets the following three objectives:
- To establish the perfect mother tongue of the participants.
- To find out the impact between learners taught in mono and multilingual teaching
- To suggest the multilingual approach in teaching English in order to help out in EFL classrooms.
04. Research questions
For Kothari (2004), research questions clearly reflect the research topic. They also determine the scope of a study. The three research questions below are used in this dissertation.
- What is the perfect mother tongue of participants?
- Is there an impact between monolingual teaching and multilingual one?
- Is multilingual teaching approach appropriate for participants?
05. Hypotheses
Ahuja (2001) defines a hypothesis as an assumption about relationships between variables and a tentative explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome.
The following research outcomes expected are:
- Most of participants have Lingala and French as perfect mother tongues.
- There is a positive impact between learners taught in monolingual teaching and those taught in multilingual one, which is demonstrated statistically.
- The multilingual teaching approach, which shows a positive impact, is appropriate for participants.
06. Research design
Research design is defined by Leedy (1997) as a plan for a study providing the overall framework for data.
For this study, the researcher used double sequential explanatory models of mixed methods design that includes both quantitative study (survey questionnaire) and qualitative study (interview) and quantitative (tests). The data were collected from a sample of students. Those students were randomly selected. Double sequential mixed methods are used because they complement each other to answer all research questions effectively. (Durkheim, 2004).
07. Field of the study
This dissertation falls in the broad field of applied linguistics including social aspects of language use, that is sociolinguistics, and aspects of language teaching, that is applied linguistics strictly speaking. It covers both sociolinguistics and teaching-learning aspects of language. In other words, in this dissertation, sociolinguistics solves a problem related to the language use and applied linguistics related to the teaching and learning of English language.
08. Theoretical framework
This dissertation examines an interdisciplinary topic s and is based on three main theories: translanguaging, multilingual theory, and classical test theory. Translanguaging is a theory that explains how people use different languages in everyday life. It involves using multiple languages while teaching. (García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). It involves the simultaneous use of two languages while teaching (Cen Williams, 1980).
Multilingual theory focuses on the existence of various languages in a specific geographic area. Individuals in such areas may speak only one language or multiple languages. (Otwinowska-Kaztelanic, A, 2011). Classical test theory is commonly used to assess grammar skills. (Novick, 1966).
It is a traditional method for evaluating the reliability and validity of a test based on its items. This theory is also known as the true score model. (Cappeleri, 2014).
09. Delimitation of the work
This study is restricted to a specific time and place as follows:
It is carried out in the period going from 2021 to 2024 at the University of Kinshasa, the Faculty of Arts, mainly in the department of media. This choice is justified by the proximity and availability of necessary data collection.
10. The work outline
Apart from the introduction and conclusion, the current dissertation is divided into four chapters as follows: the introduction includes key concepts definitions; the first chapter is about the review of literature. The second one describes the research design and methodology. The third one is the results (interpretation). The fourth one focuses on discussion and the last one concerns some recommendations.
CHAPTER ONE: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter contains four sections. The first section deals with definitions of some key concepts. The second and third ones concern respectively the sociolinguistic situation of the DRC and studies on the mother tongue in the DRC. The fourth and the last one provide the previous works on the use of mother tongues in EFL classrooms.
I.1. Definitions of some key concepts.
I.1.1. Terms related to languages
Twenty two key concepts that are worth defining are: the Mother Tongue, second language, vernacular language, the national language, the foreign language, the lingua franca and other related concepts.
I.1.1.1. The Mother Tongue (MT)
For the concept ‘Mother Tongue’, seven definitions have been retained, starting from UNESCO’s.
According to UNESCO (1953), "mother tongue" (MT), also known as first language (L1) or Native language (NL) or home language: ‘’is the language or languages that a person has learned since birth and/or is most familiar with.
It is important to note that a person's language does not have to be his mother tongue, as everyone has his own unique language background.
This language is used for thinking, dreaming, and counting. It is a language that a person has become proficient in and is the primary one they use.
The terms mother tongues, first languages, or native languages are all used to describe the language(s) that a person has known since birth or is most comfortable with. These terms are used because each person has his own language history.
UNESCO’s definition obviously includes two elements, a chronological one and a competence one. While the first is pretty natural and a straightforward one, as is the case for MTs in monolingual countries, the second element is more difficult to define, particularly in multilingual countries.
It is, for example, easy to define and consider French as the general MT of French men; it is not the case for defining the MT(s) of Congolese people, even of Bakongo, Baluba, Baswahili and Bangala people! UNESCO and other organizations have identified the first criterion as achievable, but the second criterion always leads to discussions about which language a multilingual speaker uses most often.
According to UNESCO (2003), the most effective way to teach a child is in their mother tongue. This is because their mind naturally processes information through familiar signs, making it easier for them to express themselves and understand concepts. Additionally, speaking their mother tongue helps a child feel connected and recognized within their community. Learning in their mother tongue also allows a child to acquire knowledge faster compared to learning in a foreign language. For example, they can grasp a subject much more quickly when it is taught in their own language.
Online dictionaries define "mother tongue" or "first language" (L1) as the language a person learns from birth. It is also referred to as a dominant language, home language, or native language. Before, people used to call their mother tongue their homeland language
According to UNESCO (2017), this is the main language that is spoken regularly from birth at home and usually used as the first language from parents.
It is the ‘first language’ or languages that the child learns at an early age in an environment where the language is spoken. However, a child may have several first languages, for example by having parents who speak two or more languages. In the 60’s mother tongue was called homeland language” to refer to the ancestral language spoken at home. (Hernandez, 2018)
Wahdaniyah J. (2017) points that a child may have different mother tongues only if those languages are spoken equally often so that the child learns them at the same time.
According to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2007), a mother tongue is the language that you first learn to speak when you are a child. According to Cobuild Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1987) and Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1995), it is the language that you learn from your parents when you are a baby.
If a person no longer understands the first language he or she learned, the second language is the one they learned. For someone who learned two languages simultaneously in early childhood, "mother tongue" is the most commonly spoken language at home before going to school.
A person may only have two mother tongues if the two languages are used at the same time and are understood by the same person. In conclusion, a mother tongue is the first language, native language, home language or dominant language of a multilingual person. These different terms are used alternatively.
I.1.1.2 Multilingualism
Multilingualism is defined as the use of three or more languages; It is the ability to communicate in multiple languages (Larissa Aronin, 2018). Generally, multilingualism refers to the coexistence of multiple languages within a country, community. Neuroscientists delve into the topic of multilingualism by examining how the brain is structured in individuals who are proficient in more than one language.
I.1.1.3 Multilingual education
A Multilingual education refers to the use of more languages as a medium of instruction. The term "multilingual education" refers to the use of at least three languages—the mother tongue, a regional or national language, and an international language in education (UNESCO, 2003).
Furthermore, UNESCO urges an adequate supply of reading material in mother tongues to learners "for entertainment, as well, as for study’. It is an approach that involves using two or more languages as the medium of instruction. In other words; it implies the formal use of multiple languages in the curriculum.
In countries where there are multiple regional languages or more than one official language that include both the mother tongues of children and the widely spoken languages of the nation. (UNESCO, 2003)
I.1.1.4. Mother-tongue education
Mother-tongue education refers to the use of a person's native language as the main language of instruction (UNESCO, 2015). Teaching involves an instructor, a goal, and a context made up of elements that can be controlled by the instructor (such as teaching methods) and those that cannot (like class size and school facilities) (Smith, 1963).
Teaching is a dynamic process that primarily involves conversations between teachers and students during specific activities (Edmund, 1967).
It follows a scientific approach with key components including content, communication, and feedback (Gagne et al, 1974).
I.1.1.5. Intercultural education:
Intercultural education involves teaching people to appreciate and understand different cultures, helping them adapt and thrive in a community that respects these differences.
It emphasizes the importance of building relationships with individuals from diverse backgrounds, including those with different languages, religions, cultures, and perspectives.
This kind of education is important for dealing with differences in gender, social class, and economic status, along with cultural differences like beliefs, values, and traditions. By appreciating and accepting diversity, intercultural education can improve the social, cultural, and economic health of a community or setting. (Chiriac, Argentina, 2013)
I.1.1.6. Second language (L2)
According to UNESCO (2015), a second language (L2) is a language that a person learns in addition to their native language. It is often called the official language, especially in countries that have been colonised.
A second language is typically a language that is necessary for education, work, and daily activities, as mentioned by Saville-Troike (2006).
A Second language acquisition occurs when someone learns a new language in a place where it is not the native language, as noted by Henrici & Vollmer (2001).
When a person learns a second language, they start with the language he or She learned as a child, which is typically the one spoken by their family. (Gass and Selinker, 2008).
Learning a second language involves intentionally learning a new language that is not the same as their first one.
I.1.1.7. Vernacular language
Is a native, local language spoken either by a rural or urban speech community or by a lower social class, it is informal or usual the least standardized (Li Ming, 2020)
I.1.1.8. National language
Holmes (2001) defines it as the language of a political, cultural, and social group, and it is often created and used to represent national unity. A national language is a language or its variant, like a dialect, that is linked to a group of people and the area they live in. Generally, national languages are the languages spoken in a specific region, often a nation-state, by one or more groups. This connection means that a national language is tied to a place, but it can also serve as a way for different groups within a nation to communicate. Ultimately, a national language represents a community of speakers, which may not always align with a formal state, but it is important for communication and identity. (Fathi, 2023).
National language is the language of political, social and cultural entity and national integration (UNESCO, 1953). According to the constitution, the Democratic Republic of Congo recognizes four national languages: Ciluba, Kikongo, Lingala, and Kiswahili.
I.1.1.9. Official language
According to Holmes (op. cit), an official language is a language used for government business in some areas like the court, parliament, and administration. It may not be widely spoken in society, but sometimes one language can serve as both the national and official language. Official Language is the language used by government institutions, including courts, legislatures, and administrative bodies. It is also the language used in schools for teaching and learning at all levels. Often, the constitution specifically states which language is the Official Language, along with any other National Languages that may exist. (Fathi, op cit).
The difference is that national language is used for political, cultural, and social functions, whereas the official language is used for government business such as the national court, parliament, and business.
I.1.1.10. Lingua franca.
Matthews (2007) defined Lingua franca as any language used for communication between groups who have no other language in common. The term goes back to a variety of Vulgar Latin spoken in the South of Italy, mainly for trade (UNESCO, 1953).
Ciluba, Kikongo, Kiswahili, and Lingala are good examples of lingua franca in the DRC. They are all used for wider and intertribal communication in the eastern, northern, central and western parts of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
I.1.1.11. Foreign language (FL)
A Foreign language (FL), is ‘a language that is taught as a school subject but which is neither used as a medium of instruction in school nor as a language of communication within a country’ (Gumperz, 2010). English is a foreign language in the DRC. Let us note that in many countries, particularly developed one, foreign languages are optional as school subjects, for example, French in England or English in France or Germany. The status of English in the DRC is clearly not the same as in these countries. It may be regarded as a midpoint between an official (second) language and a foreign language (Malekani, 2006).
For instance, in the DRC, English is a foreign language and its use is mandatory from secondary to post-secondary schools. Recently, a Ministerial Decree has made it a “transversal” at all levels of higher education and universities. It is not spoken at all in any national Congolese community, despite its growing use in some areas.
I.1.1.12. Language of instruction
The language used for teaching the basic curriculum or core subjects in the educational system is referred to as school language inside or outside the classroom (UNESCO, 2003).
I.1.1.13. Language of choice
Language choice is a sociolinguistic concept that involves selecting languages for specific purposes in different situations. The decision to use a particular language can be conscious or unconscious, but it always occurs within a specific context, such as a speech community. Language choices are important in communication, as noted by Holmes (2013).
This means that when people communicate, they often select a specific language. In multilingual communities, individuals may use more than two languages. When speakers use multiple languages, it shows they are making a language choice. They might choose one language or mix languages while interacting. People select the right language for their conversation, switch languages, and use different languages depending on the situation.
I.1.1.14. Inter African languages
Inter-African languages like Kiswahili in East Africa and Lingala in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo Brazzaville are commonly used for communication between countries.
These languages were officially recognized and discussed in the most recent report from the Conference on Language Policies in Zimbabwe in 1997.
They are important for education and business.
I.1.1.15. Perfect mother tongue
Woolston (2015) defined perfect mother tongue by mentioning the following three criteria: firstly, it is a language learned from childhood; secondly it is spoken competently by the speaker basing on the four language skills. Lastly, the speaker sounds native like when speaking it.
Li (2008) defined perfect mother tongue as a true language of an expert in multiple languages. Nsimambote (2024) defined perfect mother tongue as the easier and emotional language of a multilingual person after establishing sociopsycholinguistic parameters. In conclusion, a perfect mother tongue is any language used daily with a high proficiency.
I.1.2. Terms
I.1.3. Related to culture
I.1.3.1. Enculturation
For Stephen A. and Marvin K. (1988), it can be defined as a process of learning one’s own culture.
I.1.3.2. Acculturation
Which is a process of learning another culture. (Stephen and Marvin, op cit)
I.1.3.3. Cultural integration
One of the scholars who studied this topic is Durkheim (1951). He believed that cultural integration is a process that allows individuals or groups within a social system to connect with each other in a meaningful way. Essentially, cultural integration involves the evolution of behaviors, attitudes, everyday habits, beliefs, and more (Wanner et al., 2002)
I.1.4. Terms related to teaching I.1.3.1.Teaching
Edmund (2019) teaching as "an interactive process that mainly consists of dialogue occurring in the classroom between the teacher and the student, taking place during specific identifiable activities.
I.1.3.2. the teacher plays a significant role in finding new ways for students to learn (Zamroni, 2001).
I.1.5.Terms related to learning
I.1.5.1.Learning
Learning is a person's effort to achieve an overall new change in behavior as a result of their experience of interacting with their environment (Slameto, 1995). In addition, learning is a process by which human beings acquire a vast variety of competencies, skills, and attitudes (Wahyuni, 2010).
I.1.5.2.Learner:
Learner is a person who learns, according to the online Collins dictionary, or is someone who is learning about a particular subject or how to do something.
I.2. The Sociolinguistic Situation of the Democratic Republic of Congo
In this section, the researcher presents the situation of the language during the colonial period and what prevails today, as some authors have had to point out, as well as, Congolese and foreigners in general (Africans, Westerners, etc.).
I.2.1. Languages spoken in the DRC
The Democratic Republic of Congo is a multilingual country with approximately 450 different ethnic groups, where nearly 242 languages are spoken.
Among these, Ciluba, Kikongo, Kiswahili, and Lingala have been recognized as national languages, while French serves as the official language. While French is commonly spoken as a second or third language by most Congolese. Studies indicate that only a minority use it as their first language. In Kinshasa, the capital city, the majority of the population speak French and Lingala. Various statistics suggest that there are 7 million Kasai speakers, 11.1 million speakers of Congolese Kiswahili in the Eastern regions, and 5 million Kikongo speakers.
Ndolo (1992) presented the situation of national languages with the percentage of their speakers as follows:
Table 1: number of speakers in different geographical areas
As for Kamwangamalu (1996), he has represented these national languages in the table with the respective geographical areas where they are spoken as follows:
Table 2: Geographical areas where these national languages are used
According to Ntawakuderwa (1986) Lingala should be recognised as an independent national language while Kamwangamalu (1997) has shown support for Kiswahili.
I.2.2. Language policy in the DRC before and after independence.
I.2.2.1. In Pre-Colonial Period
Prior to the establishment of the EIC, the Democratic Republic of Congo had various kingdoms and empires. Notable among them were Kongo, Luba, and Kuba. Additionally, the empire of Lunda held prominence in the region. It is believed that the empire of Lunda primarily used one language for communication, while the kingdoms, such as Kongo, used another language.
The question arises as to which languages were used for internal and external communication within these entities. Were the inhabitants of these kingdoms and empires compelled to learn these languages through educational institutions or military training? Conversely, some argue that distinct populations were dispersed throughout the nation. Considering the fact that these entities were either multilingual empires or monolingual kingdoms, it appears that significant communication barriers were not prevalent.
Furthermore, there existed a connection between Portugal and the Kingdom of Kongo. However, it remains unclear which language the Kingdom of Kongo used in written communication and the level of difficulty they encountered when interacting with the Portuguese.
I.2.2.2 Independent State of Congo (1885-1908)
In the early stages of Belgian dominance over Congo the challenge of incorporating local languages into education posed a significant obstacle for the colonizers. To deal with the linguistic complexities of the newly independent state various solutions were proposed through a series of decisions and legal actions.
These included Circular No. 6 of 1967 which banned the use of French in official interactions with Congolese natives and soldiers as well as Circular No. 41 of July 1 1895 which stressed the need for European Community officials to develop vocabulary in the different indigenous dialects. In addition Circular No. 62 was implemented to establish regulations for the spelling of geographic names in Congo. Furthermore an agreement was signed on May 26, 1906 advocating for the use of Belgian national languages instead of studying Congolese languages. This agreement was accompanied by the establishment of agricultural and vocational schools on May 4 1902 a mere two years after the formation of Congo as an independent State.
After achieving independence French was declared as the official language for the State government and judiciary while missionary efforts were carried out in mother tongues.
The first instance of the French language being introduced was in 1902 when school colonies were founded for orphaned and abandoned children.
I.2.2.3. Belgian Congo (1908-1960)
The Charter of Colonization was introduced by the Belgian Congo government on 18 October 1908. Although it did not specifically address the languages spoken in the country, it emphasized the importance of both Flemish and French, the languages spoken in Belgium.
Many significant laws were written and distributed in both Flemish and French. Following meetings in Stanleyville, Kisangani, and Kisantu in 1910, missionaries decided to begin teaching children in their native languages at the elementary level. This initiative prompted the colonizers to consider standardising the various languages spoken in the region.
They aimed to document key versions of these languages and promote a common language for the country through specific measures. In May 1912, Colonial Circular No.68 was issued, highlighting the significance of teaching in local languages and indicating a desire among the people of Belgium to adapt to the country's circumstances.
The Colonial Congress of 1920 and the Franck Commission of 1922 focused on strategies for teaching the national language in schools.
Discussions between the government and religious groups resurfaced language issues once again.
According to Article 3 of the agreements, the colonial government compensated 3,000 francs for each native language documented by the missions, which included a grammar book, vocabulary list, and a map indicating the regions where the language was spoken.
I.2.2.4 Post-colonial period
Regarding language policy in the Democratic Republic of Congo, it has undergone significant changes since independence. Initially, there was confusion surrounding the use of local languages in daily life. However, important decisions were made to address this issue.
For example, Decree No.174, issued on October 17, 1962, focused on restructuring the primary education system, leading to the phasing out of local languages in schools. One major outcome of this decree was the establishment of a single national language for all official purposes.
In 1968, the Education Reform Commission held its first session, where it recommended the introduction of bilingualism (French and local languages) in primary schools.
Subsequently, during the second session of the commission, there was a proposal to incorporate regional languages into the primary education curriculum.
A. Communiqué No. 253/0158/25/68 of 1968 (Ministry of Culture and Tourism) Decided to promote and disseminate four national languages, but did not specify how the decision would be implemented.
B. The first regular congress of the MPR (1972) called for the study and teaching of Zairian languages at all levels, but there was no follow-up.
In 1974, the Lubumbashi Linguistic Seminar made a request for national languages to be reintroduced in primary schools. However, there was no follow- up on this matter.
Moving forward to 1982, the Third Ordinary Congress of the MPR decided that there would be no specific guidelines regarding the use of national languages. Then, in 1992 and 1993, the country's sovereign national conference of active forces called for the four indigenous languages, along with French, to be recognized as official languages. Unfortunately, this idea remains a mere fantasy and will never be put into action.
The land holds great cultural significance and is protected and promoted by the state. Since the colonial era, four indigenous languages, namely Kikongo, Tshiluba, Lingala, and Kiswahili, have been officially used as national languages.
Lingala is the only African language that President Mobutu predominantly used in public settings.
However, the promotion of Sango, a language used for commercial purposes on the northern border with the Central African Republic, was not successful due to the dominance of Lingala. Lingala is the most widely spoken of the four national languages and has been the primary language since independence, especially in the capital city.
In urban areas with a high number of multi-ethnic marriages, Lingala is the language spoken by the majority of children. It is also the language used by children in Swahili-speaking regions. A map at the end of this document provides a summary of the distribution of major languages, although it is not comprehensive enough to determine the languages spoken in specific areas. Barbara Yates (1980) states that a Zairian person may speak their mother tongue at home or with other members of their ethnic group, French at work, or Lingala as a regional commercial language during market conversations. More broadly, President Mobutu frequently spoke to audiences speaking Kiswahili in the city of Bukavu and other locations by using Lingala in his speeches. His argument that Kiswahili was unacceptable in Zaire was politicized by doing this and was connected to the existence of Arab slave traders.
Concerning the sociolinguistic pyramid, four levels can be mentioned:
Level 1: we have almost 250 ethnic languages.
Level 2:we have four national languages. These languages are Ciluba (a local language), Kikongo (a local language), Kiswahili (a local language), and Lingala (a local language).
In the DRC, Kikongo is spoken in two provinces – Kongo Central and Bandundu but it is also spoken with particular accents in other countries like Gabon, Congo Brazza ville and Angola. Lingala is also used in the province of Kinshasa and the five present provinces of former Equateur as well as in two of the former ‘province orientale’. It is generally used in each province as lingua franca.
Kiswahili: spoken throughout most of the Eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo now in nine provinces: North Kivu, South Kivu, Maniema, Katanga, two former provinces of Kasai, Kinshasa, and former Province Orientale etc.).
It is also used in primary schools, and partly in the national and international press (some BBC and German TV programs are in Swahili), evangelization, etc. Outside our borders, the language is spoken in Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Kenya.
Ciluba: is a Bantu language spoken exclusively in the Democratic Republic of Congo, specifically in the two former provinces of Kasai Oriental and Occidental; It is a language of education, oral and written press, courts, administration and evangelization in this region of Kasai. Note that Ciluba comes in two variants: Luba and Lulwa (Mubiayi Mamba, 2015).
Level 3: the official language: French. According to the language policy introduced in 1963, it is that of the 1954 reform, which officially made French the only language of instruction (see decree Art. 3 of October 17, 1962).
Level 4: English taught as a foreign language. Let us mention that French is the high language (H) which means it is on top and the national languages are the low language (L) which means it is at the bottom. The fact that H is valued more highly than L and has more specialized roles and uses in the community is one of the characteristics of diaglossia, according to Ferguson (1954).
French is still widely spoken today, although some researchers claim that only a small proportion of Congolese can speak or write it (e.g. Rubengo: only 30% can get it right).
Calvet (1993) defined language planning as the "passage à l'acte," or the actual application of a language policy. The deliberate choices made about how a language or languages interact with social life are referred to as language policy. In light of this, a language strategy is an endeavor undertaken by the community to achieve the optimal distribution of the language or languages that are spoken there (in accordance with goals that will be determined independently). Language planning and language policy are terms that are more commonly used in conjunction with one another.
A State, an area, a department, or a city could be considered public, or a company, a media conglomerate, or an association could be considered private. At times, they are regarded as variants of the same classification, and at other times they are used to differentiate between two levels of political action based on the languages used in a particular culture. Though Calvet (1987) argues that the opposite is not true, language planning and language policy are related concepts. It's possible that the political wording(s) selected will not always result in an exceptionally impressive legal-institutional execution.
France can serve as an example in this sense, as it has a long history of developing language policies. First and foremost, a language policy is a policy—a systematic approach to achieving a shared objective.
The main purpose of language policies is to manage user interests when there are different languages spoken on the same land.
Any group has the ability to create a language policy. The term "family language policies" is commonly used, or we can think of a community, such as the deaf or gypsies, making decisions about language policy.
However, the State and the family ultimately decide how policies are implemented. There is still a disagreement about the best term to use for carrying out a language policy. Should we use planning, development, or standardization? All three terms are found in sociolinguistic literature.
The main objective is to control one or more languages, both in their form and their use. This is referred to as "planning" by Anglo-Saxon researchers, "aménagement" based on social consensus for a collective project, or "normalization" popularized by Catalan sociolinguists in Spain.
According to Kilumba, Nkiko, et al. in 2013, language policy involves choosing languages and having a positive or negative attitude towards them. The study also suggests that language planning is about carrying out a predetermined policy to achieve specific goals.
In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), French is used as the only officially recognized language in social, legal, political, and economic fields, while native languages are not given equal importance, leading to a gap between the privileged elite and the less informed majority.to support regional languages.
Various official documents attest that the nation's language policy has remained largely unchanged, except in the field of education. This policy was first instituted in 1906 by the Catholic Church during the Convention which mandated officials from the Diocese of Leopoldville in Kinshasa to convene in 1907 and determine the curriculum for the following year.
Van Keerberg (1985) stated that the educational program in the Democratic Republic of Congo was divided into three sections. The first section emphasized teaching essential skills like reading, writing, and arithmetic in the local dialect, along with basic geography, history, and mathematical operations. This method had been implemented for almost fifty years.
Nevertheless, it wasn't until the legislation of 1938 and 1948 and the insistence from the local community that French education was finally established. This pressure started with teaching in primary schools and later switched to French as the main language in third grade.
This system is still used today. In the first two years of primary school, students are taught in both languages. But from the third year on, French is the only language taught by missionaries, like Catholic Church members. In public schools, the national language is used for teaching, while in primary schools, it is the official language.
People often refer to ethnic languages in various ways, such as mother tongue, vernacular, minority language, local language, indigenous language, dialect, and more.
Unfortunately, these terms can sometimes suggest that ethnic languages are not as important.
Ethnic languages are usually learned naturally and are used for communication within different ethnic communities. However, they are gradually being replaced by international languages like French or English.
Historically, the Constitutions of the Democratic Republic of Congo have struggled to address the problem of ethnic languages. Besides the colonial charter, multiple constitutions were introduced from 1964 to 1974 that also had a major impact.
The lack of ethnic languages in this constitution is clear. The constitution suggested in 1999 of the DR Congo states that "the other languages of the country are part of the Congolese heritage, which the State protects and promotes." Still, it is not clear what role these languages play in the country.
There are many languages to think about, and discussing ethnic languages like this shows that lawmakers in the DR Congo have a tough choice with so many options. The Congolese Government must protect ethnic languages since they are in danger. The transitional constitution has added more ways to protect these languages. The lack of discussion about these languages by Congolese lawmakers highlights how much they are overlooked
The new constitution recognizes and prioritizes the languages of the DR Congo.
Seminars, workshops and conferences have been organised to solve the language problem, focusing mainly, as mentioned above, on the possible choice of a national language to become official as a replacement for French (Polome 1968; Bokamba 1976; Mutombo Huta-Mukuna 1987).
The sociolinguistics of the four vernacular languages has experienced notable shifts due to political, economic, and social influences. Lingala and Kiswahili have gained significance since the colonial era, with Lingala rising in prominence during the Mobutu regime and Kiswahili for multiple reasons.
There have been some studies recommending a single national language.
a. The choice of Lingala
According to well-documented article by Ntahwakuderwa (1987) argues that Lingala should be acknowledged as both the national and official language. This recognition could strengthen the current political leadership. The author points out how politicians play a key role in choosing a country's official language, using Kiswahili in Tanzania as an example and mentioning the Arusha Declaration, which provided equal educational chances for all citizens. Additionally, the article highlights other important benefits of Lingala, supported by various earlier studies, such as its ability to unite different communities and its broad usage across many areas of society.
1. Its use in Congolese music.
2. Its use in the Army.
3. Its use in Kinshasa, the capital city of the country.
4. The perception of many learners about Lingala language is that it is a relatively easy language.
b. The choice of Kiswahili
In another well-documented article, Kamwangamalu (1997) argues in favour of Kiswahili as the national language and second official language for the following reasons:
No one can claim ethnicity for this language in Congo because it was imported into Congo from Tanzania and Kenya and most of those who speak Kiswahili have another indigenous language that is not necessarily one of the four national languages. Kiswahili would therefore be perceived as a neutral language everywhere.
The country (DRC) could benefit from the Tanzanian language experience, which can be seen as a development success story; Kiswahili has a wider national and international distribution than the other national languages;
Even if the literary tradition of Kiswahili is no more developed than that of other languages in the DRC, it is developed outside the DRC with dictionaries, grammars, journals, poems, courses at foreign universities and broadcasts on foreign radio stations.
The Government would therefore spend less money on developing teaching materials for teaching Kiswahili.
As far as Lingala is concerned, without categorically rejecting Ntahwakuderwa’s views, it is nevertheless important to put them somewhat into perspective:
Lingala is the main language in Congolese music, but it is important to note that other languages are also present. Kiswahili, for example, has been used by artists like Wendo and Bombenga. Additionally, phrases from various languages are still incorporated into the music;
b. Its use in the army is now shared with Kiswahili by the AFDL;
c. While using Lingala for the most part, the capital Kinshasa is gradually introducing other national languages, as can be seen in buses and other public places;
d. No language is entirely easier than others, depending on the psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic and pedagogical factors specific to the cases concerned.
With regard to Kiswahili, it is also important to recognize Kamwangamalu’s argument and to define its limits:
1. The introduction of Kiswahili into Congo remains a topic of scholarly debate, particularly in relation to the timing of this introduction.
2. For some analysts, including Nkulu (1984), this introduction must have occurred long before the 19th century, given the prolific trade exchanges that would have taken place between the Katanga and Tanzanian chiefs, all of whom speak Kiswahili, several centuries earlier.
3. According to this thesis, the Congolese ethnic Kiswahili is effective, even though it is more recent than some others.
4. The experience and linguistic expansion of the language in foreign countries can have a certain impact on the domestic soil, but it should not be exaggerated, because national parameters are decisive for the adoption of a single official national language.
5. In terms of pedagogical advantage, it also remains limited in that the variety of Kiswahili to be taught in schools should not be far from common usage, even in its standardised form, bringing Kiswahili back to par with others languages.
In the final analysis, Kiswahili's real advantage over other languages remains its wider and internal distribution in the D R Congo, the political impact of which is undeniable.
Furthermore, the sociolinguistic status of the four Congolese languages has changed considerably in post-colonial Congo. During this period, Lingala had the status of a unique national language. A number of factors, including political, social and economic, have contributed to the rise of Lingala's sociolinguistic status, the most significant being its continual use in the military, music and the military coup of 1965 (Kutumisa, 1987; Malekani, etc.).
I.2.2.5. Studies on Mother tongues in the DRC
Malekani (2001) investigated on the mother tongue effect, of some students in Kisangani and the result of his research has shown that they are trilingual in Kiswahili, Lingala and French, as reflected in the MT effect total scores.
Using a foreign language like French by some Congolese students as a first language may seem strange at first. However, it is understandable because French is widely used in today's Congolese schools.
This conclusion requires that three MTs be considered instead of one in any contrastive analysis (CA), error analysis (EA), interlanguage (IL), or other applied linguistics studies covering the Congolese region that is the subject of this investigation.
Malekani (2002) carried out another sociolinguistic investigation aimed at examining the multilingualism of students from Kisangani and Kinshasa at the Faculty of psychological and Pedagogical sciences; and the study confirmed the dominant multilingualism of Kiswahili, Lingala and French.
A study by Tsengele (2012) explored how young learners develop their language skills and analytical thinking while learning English as a second language from infancy to age 12. The results disclosed that children whose parents are talkative demonstrate good command of language use and a broader range of vocabulary compared to those with reserved parents. Hence it is crucial for parents to actively engage in conversations with their children to promote language development.
Nsimambote (2014) suggested a quantitative method for identifying MTs and contrasted it with the scoring principle outlined by Malekani (2012). His study concluded that the quantitative method assigns more accurate values to the base languages than the scoring principle. Five steps were defined in detail:
1st step: the researcher prepares questions that consist of items to identify MTs. 2nd step: the researcher submits these questions to the participants.
3rd step: the researcher presents the results by proportions exactly as the participants provided them. In case answers from different respondents diverge in terms of languages, they are grouped into single proportions.
4th step: classifying the grouped results of different items into their corresponding sociolinguistic parameters.
5th step: synthesizes the whole results of the study in a table of aggregate scores revealing the most dominant languages as the ones scoring the most basing on the scoring principle outlined by Malekani (2001).
Luzitusu (2021) conducted a study on mother tongue in the city of Kinshasa and found that young people in Kinshasa, especially in the Kindele district, acquire a different mother tongue from their parents. Such a mother tongue can be French or at least one of the national languages, while the mother tongue of the parents can be the Vernacular language.
In some cases, the researcher found that they are not only multilingual, but that these languages act as mother tongues for some of them by combining the following languages: French and Lingala or French and Swahili or French and Kikongo or Tshiluba, which were found to be dominant.
Kidinda (2021) investigated the influence of learners' mother tongue on the learning of English as a foreign language. He concluded that although the mother tongue is not important for an EFL learner, it still has an influence. As it has become a habit for students to speak in their mother tongue during breaks, this is a good example of students in some cases pronouncing English words as if it were their mother tongue.
Nsimambote (2023) provided a procedure to establish perfect mother tongue which implies languages used competently by speakers. He designed ten questions which are based on the two socio-psycholinguistic parameters termed: the speaker’s emotional expression languages and easier languages of the speaker.
His illustrative study takes into account twenty students of the Department of media at the University of Kinshasa. Using the similar questions to assess the two parameters and basing on the quantitative procedure, the results of his study are presented in the table below: Note that the ten questions are kept in French for research reason.
The above table above provides an overview of the results of a survey questionnaire that the researcher conducted and has targeted students of the first year in the media Department.
In the first question, we see that when we asked about the language expressed in court, students use French mostly, followed by Lingala, with very little use of Swahili and French: French and Lingala, Kikongo, French and Kiswahili, and Lingala and Kiswahili;
For question 2, languages expressed in a quarrel, learners use more French language followed by Lingala and a few number of them mix languages when they speak: French and Lingala, Kikongo, French and Kiswahili and Kiswahili and Lingala and Ciluba and French.
In question 3 on the language of smooth expression, Lingala is the dominant language, followed by French and the lesser represented languages are: Kikongo, the combination of French and Lingala, French and Swahili, Lingala and Swahili;
Question 4 on language expressed in difficulty: Lingala is the most used language, followed by French, Ciluba, the combination of French and Lingala and to a lesser extent Kikongo and the combination of French and Swahili;
In Question 5 on languages of intimacy, French is the language most commonly used by our respondents, in contrast to other languages that are used to the same extent: Lingala, Kikongo, Swahili, and the combination of French and Lingala, French and Swahili;
Question 6 Languages for reading quickly and fluently French is the most commonly used, followed by Lingala and the combination of French and Lingala, French and Swahili; Question 7 shows that French is an easy language to understand, followed by Lingala, the fusion of French and Lingala, French and Swahili, and finally Kikongo; In question 8, Screen languages of dreams, French dominates, while Lingala is in second place; In question 9, Languages of movies, French remains dominant, followed by a combination of French and Lingala, French and Swahili and, lastly, Kikongo; In question 10, Languages confided in while writing, French dominates all the other languages.
The total of different languages reveals French with the highest scores (170). It is followed by Lingala with (50).Other languages such Kikongo, Swahili, Ciluba and English scoreless.
It is a surprise to notice that English, a foreign language scores higher than other national languages. Thus, the surveyed students were perfect multilinguals in both French and Lingala. These two languages can have impact on the learning and teaching of English as a foreign language.
I.3 Previous works on Mother tongues and the use of mother tongue in EFL classrooms
In the presentation of the previous works on the mother tongues in EFL classrooms, there are two groups to identify. The first group supports the idea to use the mother tongue in EFL classrooms while the second one is against the use of mother tongue in EFL classroom with English-only.
I.3.1. Previous works on Mother tongues
Atkinson (1987) is a pioneer or first contributor in the first group, he argues that very little attention is paid to the mother tongue in the teaching of English as a foreign language, and that this lack of methodological literature is probably responsible, at least in part, for the uncertainty that many teachers, both experienced and new, feel about it whether or not to use the mother tongue in the classroom.
Viewed in the context of EFL teaching approaches discussed in the preceding section, the use of the native language has undergone an oscillating movement from overuse to prohibition.
Atkison suggests that when we have to decide how much of the first language to use in class, a teacher should think about various factors like the student's level, the course level, the relationship with the teacher, and the part of the lesson.
Duff (1989) argues for the importance of the first language, saying that it influences how we think and how we approach foreign languages.
Atkinson (1987) confirms that a learner can use their first language if they cannot communicate in the second language.
Harbord (1992) explains that language acquisition involves not just learning to speak and think, but also developing a natural understanding of grammar through the first language.
Chomsky (1950s-1960s) proposed the theory of universal grammar, which differentiates between the deep and surface structures of language.
The deep structure is a basic structure present in all humans, while the surface structure is based on logical rules and changes.
This theory contests the structural view that language can be effectively studied solely through observable data without exploring its fundamental principles. Additionally, it posits that language acquisition encompasses more than merely producing correct utterances; it also requires using suitable language in diverse contexts.
Nonetheless, as the theory evolved, it became clear that its emphasis on an idealized standard form of language overlooks linguistic diversity.
Harbord recognised this as a mistake and called it the "emotional humanistic approach". He believed that language teaching should focus primarily on reducing students' anxiety by allowing them to use their native language in the early stages of learning. In this way, the native language is considered beneficial in the teaching process.
Auerbach (1993) gave the following situations as examples of situations that are beneficial to use L1:
a) Topic negotiation;
b) Classroom management;
c) Language analysis;
d) Explanation of grammatical rules;
e) Discussion of multicultural difficulties;
f) Explanation; g) Troubleshooting.
Similarly, Poulisse and Bongaerts (1994) studied the reasons why teachers code-switch when switching from L1 to L2 or vice versa during teaching. Code-switching can be used to meet language needs or achieve social/psychological goals, such as: B. Attracting students' attention, expressing emotions, changing the subject, etc
This refers to example (f), the guidelines of Auebarch (1993). In his study, Christovo (1996) emphasized the advantages of using the native language as a way to help learn a second language.
He also said that a student's native language shows how well they can handle different situations. However, relying only on the native language can make it harder to learn.
Therefore, teachers need to understand why students use their native language and use an ethnographic approach in their teaching.
When students rely solely on their native language without any limitations, it can slow down the learning process.
Therefore, teachers should understand why students use their L1 and use an ethnographic approach in their teaching.
This method suggests that students can learn both their native language and a second language at the same time, not just to connect words and structures, but also to help teachers understand how students process the second language and how social interactions change in the classroom.
Larson-Freeman (2000) states that using students' mother tongue in class helps them feel more comfortable, acts as a bridge between what they know and what they don't know, and clarifies the meaning of sentences in the new language.
Anton and Dicamilla (1999) explain that using the L1 is helpful for language learning because it helps learners have effective conversations when doing language activities that focus on meaning. John H.Bandura's cognitive theory, like Piaget in 1952, supports this idea.
Bamgbose (2000) stated that a big challenge for language planning in Africa is that many Africans have negative views about using African languages as the main languages for teaching.
These negative opinions are mostly because of the history of colonization and the low status given to African languages.
African languages have developed over time through exclusion, lack of knowledge, and the difficult experiences of their speakers. This has led to a pessimistic outlook, with many believing that English is the only way to receive a good education.
Some well-educated parents even believe that their children can only succeed by being educated in English, prioritizing job opportunities and social mobility.
Cook (2001) suggests that each aspect should be considered separately without the main focus being on avoiding the use of the first language.
It is also important to think about how well the first and second languages can be combined in the learning process. The fourth element involves students developing particular skills in the second language that they might need beyond the classroom.
Tang (2002) believes that using the first language in the classroom is helpful, even though it may not be the main way students communicate. It can support students' learning and help them understand different cultures and languages better.
Butzkamm (2003) also thinks it's important to use the first language to create a comfortable learning environment.
Many language teachers believe that using the first language can help students understand and apply new concepts, even if they initially prefer not to.
Researchers like Deller (2003), Gil and Greggio (2005), and Atkinson (1987) have found that teachers often end up using the mother tongue in the classroom. Deller (2003) argues that the first language can be useful for highlighting language differences and similarities, promoting spontaneity, fluency, group dynamics, and getting feedback from students.
However, Mello (2004) suggests that students may lose motivation to learn in the second language if both languages are used to teach the same subject, as they may rely too much on their native language.
They argue that using translation or the native language can be an efficient technique in English language teaching. Lightbown and Spada (2006) also acknowledge the positive impact of the mother tongue on second language acquisition. The ongoing debate between proponents and opponents of using the mother tongue in language learning emphasizes the need for a more flexible approach in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms, particularly in countries like Asia and Africa, including South Africa and Algeria.
Seccato (2010) recommends that teachers should use both the first language (L1) and the second language (L2) in the classroom. This is because language teaching focuses more on writing than speaking. In today's globalized world, it is seen as old-fashioned to only teach one language and force children to learn it. Samadi (2011) states that teachers mainly use the L1 to explain grammar, translate vocabulary, manage the classroom, and teach lessons.
Students use the L1 to talk to teachers when they have trouble speaking in the L2. Using the L1 in foreign language classes also helps shy and nervous students feel more confident. It is important to let students use the L1 when they need to, instead of forcing them to use only the L2.
Al Hinai (2006) pointed out that using L1 has several benefits: It helps reduce learners' anxiety and creates a more relaxed learning environment.
It allows for the incorporation of learners' cultural background and knowledge in the classroom. It simplifies the process of checking understanding and giving instructions. Additionally, it helps in explaining the meaning of abstract words and highlighting the main differences in grammar and pronunciation between L1 and L2. Mahmutoglu and Kicir (2013) demonstrate how to effectively incorporate L1 in language teaching by:
1. Identifying the language (all levels).
2. Checking comprehension (all levels).
3. Giving instructions (early levels).
4. Cooperation among learners.
5. Discussions on teaching methodology (early level).
6. Presentation and reinforcement of language (mainly early levels).
7. Examination of meaning.
8. Testing.
Translanguaging is very important in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms at this level, according to Richards (2016).
It helps students understand and remember new words.
Ibrahim (2018) points out the differences between learning EFL and ESL, stressing the need for practice and exposure.
Unfortunately, in EFL countries, using English outside of class is not required. On the other hand, Mahmud (2018) supports bilingualism as the best way to teach English.
Ibrahim (2018) strongly argues that learning English as a foreign language is different from learning it as a second language and requires consistent practice and exposure. Sadly, in EFL countries, using English outside of class is not a must. In contrast, Mahmud (2018) strongly supports bilingualism as the most effective teaching method, using the native language to explain English.
This is to fight the common use of the grammar translation method in EFL classrooms. Kerr (2019) emphasizes the importance of using the students' first language in larger classes to create a good learning environment.
Burdujan (2020) highlights the importance of teachers' choices in allocating time for L1 and L2 in influencing students' L2 learning results.
Conversely, Tanriseven and Kirkgoz (2021) strongly advocate for the integration of L1 in ESL/EFL classrooms to improve learning and understanding, overcoming language barriers and making learning easier.
As scholars and writers delve into the best practices for using L1 in EFL classrooms, the frequency of its use varies based on factors like student age, learning goals, background, and proficiency level.
I.3.2. Previous works on the use of Mother tongues in EFL classrooms.
The second group consists of scholars who are against incorporating L1 (mother tongue) in the classroom and offer justifications for their preference towards an exclusively English approach.
Leonard Bloomfield and William Skinner are two well-known figures in the field of language teaching. They introduced the Direct and Audio-Linguistic Methods in 1945. These methods focused heavily on learning patterns and structures, and then practicing and testing them until the student's responses became automatic.
The main idea behind these methods was that the first language (L1) and the second language (L2) should be treated as separate systems to avoid any potential learning difficulties, as suggested by Ellis (1997). Therefore, they advocated for the exclusion of L1 in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes. Experts believe that learning a second language follows a similar pattern to learning the first language.
Therefore, it is crucial to minimize the use of the native language when learning English as a foreign language. Philipson (1992) recommends five strategies for teaching English in EFL classes.
The most effective strategy is to have an English-only policy. It is also believed that native English speakers make the best teachers.
Starting English education at an early age leads to better results, and the more English is taught, the better the outcomes. Using other languages too much can lower English proficiency.
Auerbach (1993) agrees with this idea, saying that the more students are exposed to English, the quicker they will learn it. By listening to and speaking English, students will absorb the language and start thinking in it, which helps them deal with emotional challenges and cultural differences. Students can really learn English only if they are motivated to use it regularly.
Ellis (1997) suggests that teaching the first language in the classroom is not advisable due to "transfer," which is when your native language affects how you learn a second language.
It is better to avoid using structures in the second language that do not exist in your native language. You cannot build habits in the second language without also having habits from your first language. Ellis calls this negative transfer.
One more reason to avoid using L1 in EFL classes is that you can only really learn a language by using it all the time. Krashen (1987) stresses the importance of exposing learners to the second language for acquisition.
Duff and Polio (1990) and Ellis (1997) also highlight the significance of using the target language in the learning process. On the other hand, Hawks (2001) suggests that the use of the native language should be carefully considered and may not always be the most effective method.
Prodromon (2001) goes as far as to describe the use of the native language as a hidden issue that needs to be addressed. Gabrielatos (2001) points out that using the first language in the classroom is a controversial topic.
According to Pacek (2003), using too much of your mother tongue can result in mistakes being transferred from your mother tongue to the second language, and relying too heavily on translation can make you think that the two languages are always exactly the same. One indication of communication issues is the continual use of translations.
Forman (2005) mentioned that in a situation where English is taught as a foreign language, students often have the same first language as their teacher. He wants to encourage the use of English beyond just an ESL setting because many classrooms have students who speak different languages.
Jones (2010) found that students learning a second language are more excited about learning and feel better when they participate in discussions and activities, whether alone or in groups. Sometimes, they may need to talk about the topic in their own language when working with a partner or in a group.
In conclusion, the researcher supports using the students' native language in English classes, as studies by UNESCO have shown that children learn best in their first language. This has been successful in countries like Tanzania, where they have recognized the importance of teaching English alongside the native language.
It is also practical to teach subjects like science using a mix of the students' first language and English, especially in larger classes. This method is beneficial for students who speak multiple languages.
Teaching methodology courses and introducing scientific research in the student's native language can help them understand complex scientific concepts better.
This, in turn, can assist them in writing scientific papers such as essays and bachelor's theses. In multilingual African countries like Tanzania, where both Kiswahili and English are used in academic settings, including a local language alongside French can improve learning outcomes, especially if the dominant language is used.
Language is a powerful tool that connects people, conveys ideas, and shapes cultures. Our native language plays a crucial role in learning and understanding languages.
It is the first language we learn and the primary way we communicate within our community. The way we use our native language can greatly impact our ability to learn new languages and understand different cultures. Native language is essential for learning and understanding languages.
It serves as the basis for all other languages. Children learn their native language easily by simply listening to family members speak it. Being familiar with their first language helps them grasp how language works like grammar, sentence structure, and words. Studies indicate that students who are skilled in their first language do better when learning another language.
Language is not just about talking - it also involves discussing culture and identity. Speaking someone's first language is a way to show respect and appreciation for their background. Moreover, including the first language in the classroom can enhance students' grasp and memory of new material. When teachers explain ideas in students' first languages, it can make things clearer and boost their understanding. It also helps link what they already know with the new information.
Many writers and language experts think that mixing English with other languages is helpful because it offers more benefits. This is because English is not the primary language used in administration, particularly in education where most papers are written in French. Besides a few specific locations like study rooms, language schools, and churches, English is even less common in public institutions.
The language used in educational settings, especially in EFL or ESL classrooms, greatly affects the quality of teaching for students. It may be time for a change. A recent report from UNESCO, backed by the Ministry of Culture and the Arts and the Language Observatory, highlights the increasing focus on encouraging multilingualism in classrooms. This has caused a long-standing debate in our country about teaching methods in education. The Language Observatory aims to study how languages are used in Congolese society. Recent research indicates that as teaching methods advance, experts around the world are criticizing outdated approaches.
Each method has its drawbacks, and using our native language alongside English offers a chance to translate educational materials into the local language. This could help develop skilled language experts for our native languages.
It is important to understand that this approach does not involve directly translating English into the native language. Instead, it involves interpreting difficult parts of the language creatively. As Dodson (1972) previously mentioned, this idea can be expanded by systematically interpreting all relevant parts to be taught. A good solution might be to focus on analysing sentences with complex elements. The impact of language on individuals' experiences locally and globally is significant. In countries formerly colonized, language can either bring people together or divide them.
Experts from various language groups believe that language is a complex and personal way to connect people worldwide. Understanding different communities and environments is important. Linguists strive to protect language, while activists use it to unite people. Existentialists see language as a mirror of identity in society, politics, and culture. Educators find language to be a valuable tool for effective teaching.
Research by Mebratu in 2016 indicates that students who learn in their native language feel more confident, sharp, and better at communication and understanding academic material. Different groups of linguists view language as a personal and interconnected way to communicate.
It is essential for individuals to switch between local and global settings, especially when learning about marginalized communities.
Linguists may use language to preserve it, while activists use it to bring people together. Existentialists see language as a reflection of social, political, cultural, and linguistic identity. Educators consider language a strong and respectable tool for teaching (Mallikarjun, 2002).
In the discussions on mother tongue and English language teaching, scholars have been split into two groups: the one advocating the integration of mother tongue in the teaching of English as a foreign language and the other one that opposes this approach.
The researcher’s contribution supports the feasibility of integrating mother tongue in teaching English as a foreign language. This allows multilingual students (learners) to get profit of their multilingual asset.
- Quote paper
- Claude Malekani (Author), 2024, Using Mother Tongues In The Learning And Teaching of English As A Foreign Language, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1621078
