In this paper, I want to explore why and how Hijras are driven from their existence as religious sacred beings to sex-workers and how this leads to even more stigmatizing and exclusion, as well as a loss of agency to escape this mechanism.
In the first chapter, I explain what a Hijra is and show that defining Hijras is difficult due to their diverse (self-)perceptions. Furthermore, I give more information on the way Hijras live in communities, and their religious meaning and practices. The second chapter elaborates on their exclusion from social, cultural and economic life and health care systems. The third chapter explains how this exclusion forces many Hijras into prostitution and how this affects their image and (mental) health on the one hand, and how this leads them into a vicious circle of stigmatization on the other hand, in which they have no agency. The conclusion summarizes how all this comes together to deconstruct Hijras from within and without.
Most of this paper will be based on Nanda’s work since she was one of the first to research and write about this topic. Her work is thorough and much of newer literature regarding this topic is based on Nanda’s work. This also makes it difficult to find literature that offers new information, and monographies on social exclusion and the health of Hijras are yet to be written. The social exclusion and its effects on Hijras still seem an important topic to me. Therefore, I decided to face the challenge and work with many shorter scientific articles and bring their content into a context with Nanda’s and similar work.
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
2 Hijras – the Third Gender of India
2.1 Who are the Hijras?
2.2 The Dharma of a Hijra as Performer of Religious Ceremonies
2.3 The Hijra Community – New Family and Caste
3 Exclusion of Hijras and its Effects
3.1 Between Blessings, Curses and Westernization
3.2 Growing Up Outside of the Gender Binary
3.3 Outside of the Government’s Scheme
3.4 Exclusion from Work Opportunities
3.5 Discrimination in Old Age and Death
3.6 Self-Perception
4 Shifting to Forced Prostitution
4.1 The Excluded of the Excluded
4.2 Compensation of Damaged Mental Health with Risky Behaviour
5 Conclusion
Objectives and Topics
This paper examines the mechanisms that drive Hijras in India from their traditional status as sacred performers of fertility ceremonies into forced prostitution, exploring the resulting cycle of stigmatization and loss of agency.
- The cultural and religious identity of Hijras as the third gender.
- Social, economic, and institutional exclusion faced by the Hijra community.
- The impact of urbanization and westernization on traditional Hijra roles.
- Mental health consequences and the subsequent drift into sex work.
- The deconstruction of the Hijra identity through systemic discrimination.
Excerpt from the Book
2.1 Who are the Hijras?
Due to various opinions inside and outside of the Hijra community on what a Hijra is, it is difficult to give a final definition. While society’s common belief and the Hijras’ common claim seems to be that Hijras are “born that way”4, meaning intersexed at birth, many Hijras were actually born with male genitals and joined the Hijra community for various reasons. These reasons might be impotence or the feeling of belonging into a woman’s body.5 Most Hijras seem to agree on a Hijra either being intersexed or having undergone the ceremony of emasculation in which the male genitals are removed, leading to an image of an “other-worldly”, asexual being6 which does not participate in sexual encounters7. According to Nanda, self-proclaimed Hijras who still have their male genitals and do not plan to participate in the emasculation ceremony are seen as “fake Hijras” and called zenana in the Hijra community.8 Vgl. Goel 2016, however, claims that the cultural ideal does not match reality, in which many Hijras have not undergone the castration ceremony.9 There are also some Hijras who were born female, though this seems to be the exception.10
Hijras are “not men” because of their emasculation, renunciation of male sexuality, and their manner of dressing in women’s clothes and accessories, wearing long hair and female behaving.11 However, they are also “not women” because of their missing menstruation and inability to bear a child, and because of their female behaviour that is often perceived as exaggerated and inappropriate.12
Summary of Chapters
1 Introduction: This chapter outlines the dual status of Hijras in Indian society and establishes the research goal of exploring how they are forced into prostitution.
2 Hijras – the Third Gender of India: This section defines the Hijra identity, focusing on their role in Hindu religious ceremonies and the communal structure of their households.
3 Exclusion of Hijras and its Effects: The chapter details how Hijras face systemic discrimination in childhood, education, government services, and employment.
4 Shifting to Forced Prostitution: This part analyzes why sex work often becomes the last resort for Hijras and examines the resulting impact on their physical and mental health.
5 Conclusion: The author concludes that Hijras are caught in a destructive cycle where societal pressure forces them to deconstruct their own identity and traditional legitimacy.
Keywords
Hijras, India, Third Gender, Social Exclusion, Prostitution, Stigmatization, Dharma, Emasculation, Mental Health, Gender Identity, Marginalization, Cultural Anthropology, Human Rights, Sex Work.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the fundamental subject of this paper?
The paper explores the social and systemic exclusion of the Hijra community in India and how this marginalization drives them into forced prostitution.
What are the central themes discussed?
Key themes include the religious origins of the Hijra identity, the impact of modern societal shifts, the lack of government support, and the consequences for mental and physical health.
What is the primary research question?
The study investigates why and how Hijras are pushed from their existence as sacred religious beings into sex work and the subsequent loss of agency that prevents them from escaping this cycle.
Which scientific method is applied?
The work utilizes a qualitative approach, synthesizing existing academic literature, ethnographic case studies, and sociological reports to contextually analyze the situation of Hijras.
What topics are covered in the main body?
The body covers identity definitions, religious legitimization via dharma, the communal living structure, systemic discrimination, and the link between mental health decline and high-risk behavior.
Which keywords best characterize the work?
Keywords include Hijras, Social Exclusion, Third Gender, Prostitution, Stigmatization, and Gender Identity.
How do Hijras themselves perceive their situation?
Through case studies like Kamladevi and Sushila, the text highlights that many Hijras feel trapped, traumatized, and hopeless, often perceiving themselves as victims of both society and internal communal power structures.
What role does the "guru-chela" relationship play in the life of a Hijra?
It acts as both a source of potential security and a mechanism of exploitation, where the guru provides housing and guidance but may also extract the majority of the chela’s income.
Why is the "dharma" of a Hijra currently being threatened?
Due to westernization and urbanization, the traditional demand for Hijra fertility ceremonies is declining, which erodes their traditional religious status and economic independence.
What specific challenges do Hijras face in the healthcare system?
They face stigmatization from staff and other patients, a lack of institutional knowledge on how to treat them, and a tendency to treat their gender identity as a disease rather than addressing their actual health needs.
- Quote paper
- Antonia Helesic (Author), 2018, Shifting Religious Sacredness to Forced Prostitution. The Deconstruction of Hijras from Without and Within, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/462214
