The general objective of this study was to investigate the household socioeconomic effects of changaa brewing, trafficking and consumption among the youth in Muhudu Ward, Hamisi Sub County in Vihiga County. The study hence sought to examine the household socioeconomic effects of changaa brewing on the education of the youth, economic status of families, the social lives of the youth and possibilities of changaa being associated with criminal activities that happened in Muhudu Ward. The study was significant and justified on the basis moral decay among the youth that had been reported in the area of study and across the country, various fatalities and accidents that had been associated with changaa brewing. This study therefore was to source for remedy to this peril, and limit the associated consequences of changaa brewing, backed by the existing policies campaigns that targeted those who were involved in driving while they were drunk. The study was informed by social learning theory, by Albert Bandura, which informed the research on how the youth learnt the behavior of changaa brewing, trafficking and/or consumption. The researcher used survey research design and employed both qualitative and quantitative research procedures, in an area which had 3 sub locations. Simple random sampling was used to select 110 respondents, which comprised of 43 youths and 20 household heads randomly selected, 3 mixed groups of 10 members each randomly selected and 7 key respondents purposively sampled. Questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used to collect data. On the basis of findings, the study concluded changaa brewing, trafficking and consumption was common among male as compared to females, especially those who were single. The respondents gave reasons of enjoyment and peer influence, as being responsible for their habits. Most youth dint complete schooling, most as a result of changaa and drug abuse. Most of the youth used a highest percentage of their income on changaa (above 500 weekly), since most of them were single/ separated with their spouses. The relationships with their families were poor and it was evident enough that there was a close association between crime and changaa. The researcher recommended community action and youth vocational training.
1.5 Justification of the study
1.7 Scope and delimitations of the study
1.10 Operational definition of terminologies as used in this research
2.2 Review of empirical studies
2.2.1 Effects of chang’aa brewing on education among the youths
2.2.2 Effects of changaa brewing on family’s economic status
2.2.3 Effects of changaa brewing on social life of the youth
2.2.4 The relationship between changaa brewing and crime among the youths
2.3 Chapter summary
CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Site Description
3.3 Study and target populations
3.4 Sample size and sampling techniques
3.4.1 Sample size
3.4.2 Sampling Technique
3.5 Methods and instruments of data collection
3.5.1 Methods of data collection
3.5.1.1 Interview
3.5.1.2 Focused group discussions
3.5.1.3 The use of key informants
3.5.2 The instruments of data collection
3.5.2.1 Questionnaires
3.5.2.2 Tape recording
3.5.2.3 Note taking
3.6 Data Collection procedures
3.7 Data analysis procedures
3.8 Reliability and Validity of the instruments used
3.9 Ethical considerations of this study
CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Response Rate
4.2 Demographic characteristics of the respondents
4.3 Effects of changaa brewing on education
4.4 Effects of changaa brewing on family’s economic status
4.5 Effects of changaa brewing on the social lives of the youth
4.6 The relationship between changaa and crime
4.7 Chapter Summary
CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of Research findings
5.2 Conclusion
5.3 Recommendations
5.4 Areas for further research
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
Appendix I: A questionnaire for the youth and household heads
Appendix II: A questionnaire for the key informants
Appendix III: An interview guide for the focus group discussions
Appendix IV: Map of muhudu Hamisi Sub County
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my Parents, Nickson Savai and Nancy Shanyisa, my step parents, my grandfather Francis Savai and in a special way my lovely sister Nalisi Relark. The darkest hour is when dawn is approaching.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost I would like to thank the Almighty God for keeping me healthy throughout the research period. He gave me strength, resilience, patience, and humility throughout the entire period. I got all I needed through His mercies. The grace of the Lord is sufficient.
I would like to acknowledge St Elizabeth, for without the good will from the institution, I wouldn’t have made it this far. They settled my tuition fee, and journeyed with me throughout the struggle of this research and Degree. In a special way, I thank Dr. Daria for always being there, and assuming the role of a mother to her young ones, even when life apparently seemed to be coming to a halt.
I would also wish to acknowledge my Supervisor Dr. Mavole Johnson. Despite the unending duties as a senior lecturer, co-coordinator of post graduate program in CUEA, lecturer in classes and a family man, he still spared some time to go through my work and advice appropriately. May he live long to see his fruits nourish.
I also acknowledge The Catholic University of Eastern Africa, for offering me with all the facilities I needed in this study including library, pastoral care, classes and a conducive environment and lecturers. In a special way I thank my course mates and the entire CUEA fraternity, for I couldn’t have succeeded journeying alone. I consulted them and they advised appropriately
Finally, I would like to acknowledge my family members, for the support they gave me in terms of financial support, material support and encouragement that kept me going until the very last step of this study. In a special way, I wish to acknowledge my grandfather Francis Savai, my aunt Florence and my stepfather John. I also acknowledge the community members, the youth and the area administration for being supportive during data collection.
May God almighty grand peace, good health and long life to everyone who in one way or another facilitated to the successful completion of my research.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Conceptual framework
Figure 4.1: Age of the respondent
Figure 4.2: Gender of the respondents
Figure 4.3: Religion of the respondents
Figure 4.4: Possible reasons for changaa brewing, trafficking and consumption
Figure 4.5: Analysis by level of education
Figure 4.6: School attendance by the respondents
Figure 4.7: Analysis by weekly expenditure on changaa
Figure 4.8: Responsibility of the respondents in the family upkeep
Figure 4.9: Involvement of the respondents in criminal activities
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Sub location of respondent’s origin
Table 4.2: Marital status of respondents
Table 4.3: Involvement of the respondents in changaa brewing, transportation
Table 4.4: Duration of involvement in changaa brewing, trafficking
Table 4.5: Possible reason for not completing the level of education stated
Table 4.6: Effect of changaa on academic performance
Table 4.7: Occupation of the respondents
Table 4.8 Influence of changaa brewing on the economic status of the respondents
Table 4.9: The relationship status of the respondents with their families
Table 4.10: Impacts of changaa brewing on the social lives of youth
Table 4.11: Detention after the involvement in criminal activities by the respondents
Table 4.12: Summarized effects of changaa brewing in percentages
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AIDS: Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
ALAC: Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand
AUD: Alcohol Use Disorder
BAC: Blood Alcohol Concentration
CUEA: The Catholic University of Eastern Africa
CSEW: The Crime Survey for England and Wales
GoK: The Government of Kenya
HIV: Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
NACADA: National Authority for Campaign against Alcohol and Drug Abuse
NAYS: National Adolescent and Youth Surveys
NCADD: National Council on Alcoholism and drug dependence
NICS: National Instant Criminal Background Check System in the United States
NSDUH: National Survey on Drug use and Health
PSNI: Police Service of Northern Ireland
SEU: St. Elizabeth University of Social Work and Health sciences
SCAD: Students Campaign against Drugs
SCJS: Sustainable Criminal Justice Solutions
UK: United Kingdom
VCIDP: Vihiga County Integrated Development Plan
WHO: World Health Organization
ABSTRACT
Changaa brewing has adverse effects to the households all over the country. This affect the education, economic status, social lives and makes youth get involved in criminal activities. This problem has been a hitch in Kenya and has called for attention from the responsible persons including straining the government resources, to at least intervene in this issue. The general objective of this study was to investigate the household socioeconomic effects of changaa brewing, trafficking and consumption among the youth in Muhudu Ward, Hamisi Sub County in Vihiga County. The study hence sought to examine the household socioeconomic effects of changaa brewing on the education of the youth, economic status of families, the social lives of the youth and possibilities of changaa being associated with criminal activities that happened in Muhudu Ward. The study was significant and justified on the basis moral decay among the youth that had been reported in the area of study and across the country, various fatalities and accidents that had been associated with changaa brewing. This study therefore was to source for remedy to this peril, and limit the associated consequences of changaa brewing, backed by the existing policies campaigns that targeted those who were involved in driving while they were drunk. The study was informed by social learning theory, by Albert Bandura, which informed the research on how the youth learnt the behavior of changaa brewing, trafficking and/or consumption. The researcher used survey research design and employed both qualitative and quantitative research procedures, in an area which had 3 sub locations. Simple random sampling was used to select 110 respondents, which comprised of 43 youths and 20 household heads randomly selected, 3 mixed groups of 10 members each randomly selected and 7 key respondents purposively sampled. Questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used to collect data. On the basis of findings, the study concluded changaa brewing, trafficking and consumption was common among male as compared to females, especially those who were single. The respondents gave reasons of enjoyment and peer influence, as being responsible for their habits. Most youth dint complete schooling, most as a result of changaa and drug abuse. Most of the youth used a highest percentage of their income on changaa (above 500 weekly), since most of them were single/ separated with their spouses. The relationships with their families were poor and it was evident enough that there was a close association between crime and changaa. The researcher recommended community action; rehabilitation centers to rehabilitate those who are addicted to changaa; community sensitization on the effects of changaa in the lives of the youth and the society by both the private and the public sector; Vocational training to train the youth on various life sustaining skills; employment opportunities to the youth in order to reduce idleness; and strengthening of pastoral care in the area to at least stabilize the morality in the area by the local churches. The researcher recommended further research on effective intervention measures and the role of the County government and non- government agencies in dealing with the problem of changaa and other drug abuse in the entire country.
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains the background of the study, the problem statement, objectives of study, hypotheses of study and justification, significance, scope and limitations of study, conceptual and theoretical framework of study and operational definition of terms.
1.1 Background to the study
Alcoholism is one of the pressing issues around the globe. All countries around the world are affected by this phenomenon at some level. It raises a global concern, as no nation of the world has been spared on the effects of alcohol on the consumers (George et al, 2013). According to the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 86.4 percent of people ages 18 or older reported that they drank alcohol at some point in their lifetime; 70.1 percent reported that they drank in the past year; 56.0 percent reported that they drank in the past month. 15.1 million adults of age 18 and older (6.2 percent of this age group) had Alcohol use Disorders (AUD). This includes 9.8 million men (8.4 percent of men in this age group) and 5.3 million women (4.2 percent of women in this age group).About 6.7 percent of adults who had AUD in the past year received treatment. This includes 7.4 percent of males and 5.4 percent of females with AUD in this age group. Moreover, an estimated 623,000 adolescents ages 12–17 (2.5 percent of this age group) had AUD. This number includes 298,000 males (2.3 percent of males in this age group) and 325,000 females (2.7 percent of females in this age group). About 5.2 percent of youth who had AUD in the past year received treatment. This includes 5.1 percent of males and 5.3 percent of females with AUD in this age group.
In 2012, 3.3 million deaths, or 5.9 percent of all global deaths (7.6 percent for men and 4.0 percent for women), were attributable to alcohol consumption. In 2014, the World Health Organization reported that alcohol contributed to more than 200 diseases and injury-related health conditions, most notably alcohol dependence, liver cirrhosis, cancers, and injuries. In 2012, 5.1 percent of the burden of disease and injury worldwide (139 million disability-adjusted life-years) was attributable to alcohol consumption. Globally, alcohol misuse was the fifth leading risk factor for premature death and disability in 2010. Among people between the ages of 15 and 49, it is the first. In the age group 20–39 years, approximately 25 percent of the total deaths are alcohol attributable.
European countries have high rates of alcohol abuse and alcohol use disorders. In these countries, many young people consume alcohol beverages from as early as 16 years. According to United Nation International drug control (UNDC) conventions report, about 1 million people die each year in Russia from alcohol and related illness.
About 1 in 4 college students report academic consequences from drinking, including missing classes, falling behind in classes, doing poorly on exams/ papers and receiving lower grades overall (Hington et al, 2009). According to US facts and statistics, about 1825 students aged 18-24 incur alcohol related unintentional fatal injuries including motor vehicle crushes yearly.
South Africa is known to be a hard drinking country. It is said that it consumes in excess of 5 billion liters of alcohol annually. Alcoholism among the youths is a big concern given that at least half of the South African population comprises of the youths. Surveys have shown that alcohol use among the youths is common and it increases with age for both males and females (South African Medical Journal, 2012)
In most countries, especially in African countries there are beverages which either falls outside of the usual beer, wine and spirits categories or which are traditionally produced in villages and homes. An equivalent of this in most Kenyan communities is Changaa and busaa.
Changaa or Chang'aa is a traditional home-brewed spirit, popular in Kenya. It is made by fermentation and distillation from grains like millet, maize and sorghum. The name has its origin in Luo land. The name Chang'aa was adopted in 1950s when one Oyuga Muganda was already an AP camp in Kisumu. He once narrated the story in the presence of Tom Omuga of how ‘Pelele aka Woraj’got its name as ‘Changaa’. The story had it that, women from Kano area of Kisumu used to ferry fresh milk in pots to go and sell to Kisumu residents. Colonial Government had banned the sale of Local liquor (Peele) and so the women carrying milk also carried pelele in the milk pots as milk. One day a white policeman who had received some information about the trafficking of "Peele" stopped women milk sellers on the road to inspect their pots of "milk". One of the pots had pelele and not milk. The policeman ordered all the pots lined on the roadside and the policeman asked "Maziwayanani?’ Interpreter repeated in dholuo ‘Ma Chagng'a?’ To mean whose milk is this? So Mzungu charged the women with transporting and selling Chang'aa. That is how the name Chang'aa came about.
For many years, Changaa was illegal in Kenya. It was legalized by the Kenyan government in 2010, in an effort to take business away from establishments where toxic chemicals are added to the brew to make it stronger. This law provided that changaa must be manufactured, distributed and sold in glass bottles and retailers must display health warning signs. Sale to individuals under age 18 was still prohibited, as was sale through automatic vending machines. Anyone who made or sold adulterated changaa risked penalties of five million shillings, five years in jail, or both. Chang'aa is usually much cheaper and stronger than other alcoholic drinks, making it the beverage of choice for many.
Changaa is sometimes adulterated by adding substances like jet fuel, embalming fluid or battery acid, which has the effect of giving the beverage more 'kick'(Mureithi, 2002). Drinkers have suffered blindness or death due to methanol poisoning. The water used to make the drink in illegal breweries is also often below acceptable health standards and sometimes contaminated with sewage. This adulteration happens mostly in urban areas.
According to Munira (2005) Statistics of illicit brew crisis in Kenya (1998-2005) are as follows: In August, 1998 in Nairobi more than 80 people died in Kenya after drinking chang'aa or methanol poisoning. In November, 2000 in Nairobi, 512 people admitted for “Chang’aa” intoxication at Kenyatta National Hospital. Out of 512 admitted; 137 people died, 20 people became blind. Others visually impaired and physically disabled. In July, 2005 in Machakos 50 people died of ‘Chang'aa" poisoning. In April 2010, 15 people died in ShauriMoyo Nairobi and 10 became visually impaired due to “chang’aa” poisoning. In all the cases most of the affected were the youths thus depriving the country the most potential population to participate in development activities.
Alcohol abuse is so rampant in Kenya thereby necessitating President Uhuru Kenyatta to declare it a national disaster in 2015 (GOK, 2016). The availability of cheap liquor, coupled with massive youth’s unemployment has produced a generation that is preoccupied with drinking with little or no concern about its effects. Within the country, close to 16.6% of urban dwellers are currently abusing alcohol; with close to 11.4% of the rural population also abusing it. (GSRA, 2004)
According to the 2015 Kenya National Adolescent and Youth Survey (NAYS), among the main issues affecting the youths in Vihiga County is drug and substance abuse, alcohol being highly rated among the commonly abused drugs. The youth are dying morally, socially, psychologically, economically and physically from drug abuse and addiction as the drug barons and peddlers bask in the dark glory of plagued monetary gains amid the incessant catastrophe.
1.2 Statement of the problem
Changaa brewing has adverse social and economic effects on the individual drinker, the drinkers’ immediate environment and the society. Muhudu ward has seen a rapid population increase in the past years, with majority being the youths. Most of the youths get into abuse of changaa because of cultural boy circumcision ceremonies carried every five years. These ceremonies are marked with rampant brewing which is uncontrolled due to threats given by the locals to any external intruder who opts to disrupt the practice.
As a result, youths tend to incline onto changaa, making it necessary for the brewers. This area has experienced various school dropouts, and an alarming crime rate. This can be linked to changaa abuse. In the recent years, various youths have died as a result of changaa poisoning. This happens when youths hold grudges against each other.
Families and households are experiencing instability, regular domestic violence among others, and this goes further to affect the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, due to increased immorality in the area. No research has been done to assess the household socio economic effects of changaa brewing, trafficking and consumption among the youths in the area, despite the youths being the key players.
This research will help assess the household socio economic effects of changaa brewing, trafficking and consumption among the youths in the area, and thereby unveil possible solutions to the problem.
1.3Objectives of the study
1.3.1 General objectives
The general objective of this study is to investigate the household socio economic effects of chang’aa brewing, trafficking and consumption among the youths in Muhudu Ward, Hamisi Sub County.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
a) To investigate the effects of chang’aa brewing on education among the youths in Muhudu Ward.
b) To find out the effects of changaa brewing on family’s economic status in Muhudu ward.
c) To determine the effects of changaa brewing on social life of the youth in Muhudu Ward.
d) To assess the relationship between changaa brewing and crime among the youths in Muhudu Ward.
1.3.3 Research questions
This research will make an attempt to answer the following questions;
a) What are the possible effects of changaa brewing on education among the youths in Muhudu Ward?
b) How does changaa brewing affect the socio economic status of families in Muhudu ward?
c) What are the effects of changaa brewing on the socio economic status of the youths in Muhudu ward?
d) Is there a relationship between changaa brewing and crime among the youths in Muhudu ward?
1.4 Research assumptions
By undertaking this study, it is assumed that all the necessary respondents will be available at specific times to volunteer information and that the local authorities would cooperate in providing security and information. It further assumes that the researcher will be able to access the respondents easily and get adequate sample size that would represent the entire population of Muhudu Ward. The research also assumes that in the process of moving around to collect data, I shall have sufficient funds. Further assumption is that there shall be no other constraints and delays during the research process and that the respondents will be honest and truthful, and that they shall not demand remuneration for responding to questionnaires.
1.5 Justification of the study
Alcoholism is increasing rapidly here in Kenya and generally all over the world, day by day. Despite the prevalence of changaa in most Kenyan communities like the Luo, Agikuyu and most pronounced among the Luhya community, no research has been done on the household socio economic effects of changaa brewing, trafficking and consumption in the later community, especially in Muhudu ward, where we have witnessed this social pathology. It’s also common in other communities, apart from those named above. This has been established through thorough search in archives, libraries and NACADA, to ascertain the originality of this study. Most researchers have mentioned alcoholism in their researches, but none has addressed the household socio economic effects of changaa, prompting the choice of Muhudu ward, where it’s more common.
Changaa addiction holds back the economy and is a blow to the country as youths become less productive. It also causes the breakdown of moral values and weakens the moral fiber responsible for the peaceful coexistence in the society. It affects health and creates difficulties in family relations of the victims, among other effects.
At the end, it is believed that this study will be able to: fill in gaps in the existing knowledge, it will better explain the phenomenon of changaa in the area of study and other areas experiencing a similar problem, and thereby help in formulating more effective strategies and measures in curbing changaa abuse.
1.6 Significance of the study
The findings of this study are relevant towards policy making and implementation by the government as well as the activities of non-governmental organizations. This will aid policies aimed at curbing changaa prevalence, and also help in realizing ways of improving already existing strategies.
The study shall also assist youths and parents in learning of how changaa dependence emerges and furthermore, how it can be resolved. It shall also assist in ensuring or impacting an acceptable lifestyle.
Generally, this study will help to limit the consequences associated with changaa brewing, and consumption in not only the area of study, but also in other affected areas.
1.7 Scope and delimitations of the study
The study will only be conducted on the households, with the focus on the youths living in Muhudu Ward, Hamisi sub-county, and not those away from the ward. Other research subjects apart from the youth shall include; their parents/ guardians, the local administration and any other relevant authority.
The research is limited to Muhudu ward due to geographical constraints and cost implication. I, the researcher am familiar with the area of study as well as have access to the area and the necessary data.
1.8 Limitations of the study
It is speculated that some of this information may be considered sensitive by the respondents hence some may be scared of sharing the information. To overcome this, there shall be need to have an introduction letter from the university, stating clearly the purpose of the research. I shall also explain the essence of the research to the respondents before collecting any information from them, and thereafter, the identity of the respondents is to remain anonymous. This is to ensure that all the important information in the research is given out by the respondents to improve on accuracy and reliability,
Some of the brewers may not be willing to participate in the survey because of fear of being arrested. I shall overcome this by explaining clearly the reason for the research and assuring them of anonymity of their responses.
Some of the youths are illiterate; hence it may be difficult to acquire information for that. I shall overcome this, by use of translators in Tiriki and Swahili languages where am unable to translate myself. Moreover, I enjoy proficiency in the two languages.
Some of the respondents who abuse changaa, are in most cases under the influence of changaa, hence may give unreliable information. I shall overcome this by use of additional questions to ascertain sobriety.
1.9 Conceptual framework
Conceptual framework refers to an illustrative presentation of the relationship between variables, that is, the relationship between the independent, dependent and intervening variables.
The following conceptual framework presents the independent variables as the effects of changaa brewing, which include lack of discipline and absenteeism which result to poor performance and school dropout in schools. Loss of productivity among the youths due to changaa consumption makes them lose their employment leading to low purchasing power and poverty in general. Addiction to changaa consumption results to irresponsible behavior, immorality, criminal activities, conflicts among peers and with their parents and siblings, insecurity in the community, family separation and spread of diseases like HIV/AIDS which may lead to death. Irresponsible drinking facilitates changaa and other drugs trafficking, domestic violence and suicide and infanticide due to unwanted pregnancies conceived when drunk.
The intervening variables in this context refer to the factors that create conducive environment for changaa brewing. They include weak anti-drug policies in the area, little or no community education programmes, limited access to formal education due to poverty, the role model created by parents and the peers, idleness among the youths due to unemployment, which is brought about by illiteracy in the area.
The dependent variable is the social well being of the youths, and this can be viewed in terms of productivity, functionality and social relations. The independent variables affect the youth in the perspectives identified in the dependent variable.
All these are geared towards attaining the wellbeing of the youth, which is the only dependent variable in this research. This is summarized in figure 1.1 below.
Figure 1.1: Conceptual framework
Source: Researcher, 2019
1.10 Operational definition of terminologies as used in this research
changaa/ chang’aain this research refers to a traditional home-brewed spirit, made by fermentation and distillation from grains like maize, millet and sorghum.
Youth are individuals between ages 15-35 years old, for the purpose of this study.
Household is a social unit living together, in this case sleeping under the same roof.
Brewing shall refer to the process of fermentation and distillation of grains to acquire changaa.
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter covers a review of the theory guiding this research, and an empirical studies guided by objectives and thematic areas. The chapter focuses on the review of social learning theory; and the effects of changaa brewing on education among the youths, on the socio economic status of the youths, on the socio economic status of families and the relationship between changaa and crime among the youths in Muhudu Ward. A chapter summary is also given towards the end of the chapter.
2.1 Theoretical framework
A theory is a set of interrelated assumptions, generalizations and concepts which are systematically describes and explains behavior (Ndurumo, 2007). In this regard a theory helps in the fixing of relevant factors into logical explanation and also helps to serve as a frame work for collecting the needed information in this study.
There are various theories that are relevant in explaining alcoholism among the youth, including the social learning theory, the stepping stone theory, the primary socialization theory, the social deviance theory and the cognitive development theory among others. However, the theory that I found most appropriate in informing my research is the social learning theory. The theory guided the research in the ways discussed below;
2.1.1 Social learning theory
Albert Bandura is the major proponent of the social learning theory. This theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. According to this theory, learning occurs through observation, imitation and modeling. The theory perceives imitation as mental process in attempt to resolve the crisis of autonomy versus the shame doubt. Observational learning, also called social learning theory, occurs when an observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer's behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences-called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment- of a model's behavior (Bandura, 1997).This theory can further be explained through classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and social comparison.
In classical conditioning, a form of learning, a stimulus initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus (Baron, 2005). Youths whose parents brew changaa, will be conditioned to changaa brewing as their best alternative in life. The same case may apply to consumption. They may be the ones responsible for testing the concentration of the changaa brewed, and hence end up becoming chronic drunkards of changaa,
Instrumental conditioning is a process through which children are appreciated by parents due to positive outcomes (Baron, 2005). This may be realized in the cases where parents reward their young children for having performed better, or in cases of young boys who have just been initiated. This reward sometimes especially in the later is normally changaa and/or busaa. They hence grow up to taking drinking as part of them.
The social comparison means social learning is the process through which people compare themselves to others in order to determine whether their view of social reality is or is not correct (Festinger, 1954). Some youths tend to ape the models they see on social media, their parents and peers. They would want to take changaa because other youths of their caliber are taking.
It also emphasizes expectancies that we form about the effects of alcohol and other drugs. Individuals who have adequate coping skills and high self-esteem are able to drink at socially acceptable levels and to develop friendship with others who also avoid alcohol abuse. Those with poor coping skills in general for dealing with life problems may turn to alcohol and drugs to reduce tension, escape from problems and feel better. Secondary indications of the environment are associated with the primary stimuli of adult’s drug experience. This includes not only physical aspects of the environment but also the addict’s lifestyle. (NACADA, 2006).
However, learning can be done without necessarily changing the behavior of a person/ an individual. Learning may or may not result to behavior change.
2.2 Review of empirical studies
2.2.1 Effects of chang’aa brewing on education among the youths
In educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance. As career competition grows ever fiercer in the working world, the importance of students doing well in school has caught the attention of parents, and employers. Education is not the only road to success in the working world, much effort is made to identify, evaluate, track and encourage the progress of students in schools. Parents care about their child‘s academic performance because they believe that good academic results will provide more career choices and job security (Idokoet al, 2015). Student’s academic gain and learning performance is affected by numerous factor including gender, age, teaching faculty, students schooling, father/guardian social economic status, what they consume, residential area of students, medium of instructions in schools, tuition trend, daily study hour and accommodation as hostelries or day scholar (Idokoet al, 2015).
Behavioral research has found that educational performance is highly correlated with substance abuse (Bukstein et al, 2005). Economic studies that look at the link between alcohol use and educational outcomes have customarily focused on measures of educational attainment such as graduation (from high school or college), college matriculation, and years of school completed (Renna, 2008). Consistent with the behavioral research, early economic studies found that drinking reduced educational attainment.
- Citation du texte
- Brighton Amuni (Auteur), 2019, Household Socio-Economic Effects of Chang’aa Brewing, Trafficking and Consumption Among the Youth, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1613001
